A ccording to the worldwide trend of the subject of developmental psychology,and the realistic need in China and the state of the art in the subject,it was proposed that the research carried by Chinese developmental psychologists should be oriented to domestic reality.That is,these psychologists should strength the applied research and the application of findings,so as to satisfy the need of societal and human development,and solve related practical problems in the fields of education,mental health and the construction of harmony society,etc.

This article was to explore the developmental relationship between emotionand cognitain through a subliminal affective primingexperimentwith 183 subjects including childrenaged 5 to 7 years,the youth and the This article was to explore the developmental relationship between emotionand cognitain through a subliminal affective primingexperimentwith 183 subjects including childrenaged 5 to 7 years,the youth and the adults.It fumed out children judged the target as cry after the prime of cry face photo even less thanafter the neutral prime,Whereas,significant emotion-congruent effect was found inadults,they judged the target as cry after the cryprimemore thanafter the neutralprime.No significant affective primingeffectwas found inany group when primed by the smiling face photo.This resultproved the implicitmechanisn of child to deal with subliminal affective infoanation is keeping happy while the adult is earlywaming.

The process of category induction sequentially presenting stimuli was studied with ERP technique.The stimuli were all geometry figures.Eighteen subjects performed three tasks including two uni-dimensional tasks,one of which gave the instruction before each trial and the other one did not,and one multi-dimensional task that the category standard was two dimensions.The ERP analysis supported that(1) under the circum stance of presenting the stimuli sequentially,the following stimulus was processed based on the context provided by the previous one,then led to the formation of a new category;(2) With the difficulties' and dimensions' increasing,adults still used rules as strageties for categorization,which was different from the children who preferred similarities.So we infer from the electrophysiology aspect that category induction has anage effect.The cognitive mechanisms of processing stimuli for childrenand adults may be different;(3) P400 which appeared in the condition of sequential category induction task might be the symbol of category inductionand unrelated with the concrete processing of the attributes of stimuli.

The present study used analogical reasoning tasks to explore the effect of task difficulty and feedback learning onability of analogical reasoning in children.The results showed as follows:in feedback learning condition,childrenaged 7 and 8 years can complete the task which could be comp leted only by older children; when task difficulty is increased,the analogical reasoning ability of children older than 11 was weakened.The results suggested that whether children can exhibit the ability of analogical reasoning which they should have maybe depends on task difficulty,and feedback learning can promote ability of analogical reasoning in children withina certainage span.This result provides an effective experimental basis for compromising Piaget and Goswami' points of view.

Direct and indirect methods for internal and external motivation excitation were used,and influences of internal and external motivationas well as different external levels on the Creative Scientific Problem Finding(CSPF) of first year students in high school were studied.The results indicated as follows:(1) the CSPF and its' fluency and originality dimension can be promoted by direct stimulated internal mo tivation;(2) the CSPF and its' originality dimension can be inhibited by direct stim ulated external motivation;(3) different mo tivation levels caused by different evaluation method has different impacts on the CSPF.Looking forward to positive evaluation has not impact on CSPF,and avoiding negative evaluation has significant inhabitation to CSPF.

To explore the relations between organizational competitions and teachers' organizational identification,Organizational Identification Questionnaire,Graphic Scale for the measurement of organizational identification,Organizational Rival Questionnaire,Perceived Organizational Identity Questionnaire and Perceived Organizational Prestige Questionnaire were administered to 700 primary and secondary school teachers.The results showed as follows:outer competition,inner competition,perceived organizational identity,and perceived organizational prestige are related significantly to teachers' organizational identification; outer competitions effect teachers' organizational identification by two paths:one is outer competition-perceived organizational identity-teachers' organizational identification,and the other is outer competition-perceived organizational identity-perceived organizational prestige-teachers' organizational identification; the path by whichinner competitions make effects on teachers' organizational identification is inner competition-perceived organizational prestige-teachers' organizational identification.

With the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale(FLCAS) and English Teachers' Teaching B ehavior Questionnaire as the instruments and 399 students from grades 3 to 6 as the subjects,the study exp lored the development trends of Chinese primary school students' English classroomanxiety,and the effect of English teacher's teaching behavior on it.The results found that:(1) the primary schoo l students' English classroomanxiety increase with the rise of grades,and the level of anxiety of students in grade 5 and 6 is significantly higher than tho se in grade 3 and 4;(2) Communicating anxiety and testing anxiety are the two main types of anxiety in primary school;(3) No significant gender difference was found inall the three aspects of English classroomanxiety;(4) Teachers' negative reactionand evaluation,encouragement and assistance are the major predictors of students' English classroomanxiety.These founding indicated that teachers and parents should pay more attention to the English classroomanxiety of students in higher grades,and English teachers should try to give students more positive evaluation,which will be very helpful toreduce their English classroomanxiety.

This study examined the effect of IQ and cognitive styles of 41 college students on implicit sequence learning,Using Combined Raren's Test(CRT) and Embeded Figure Test(EFT) respectively.The implicit learning is examined by the sequence learning research paradigmand generate rask.The findings show that:two IQ levels'students have no significant difference on implicit sequence learning,but the performance of field independence cognitive style is lower than that of field dependence style.

430 primary school teachers were investigated using a battery of questionnaires to examine the mediating role of teaching-regulated ability on the relationship between their conceptions of creativity fo stering and creativity fostering behaviors.The results indicated that(1) conceptions of creativity fostering and teaching-regulated ability including its subscales could predict creativity fostering behaviors positively and significantly;(2) teaching-regulated ability including its subscales,such as planning,regulating,evaluating and self-reflection partially mediated the relationship between the conceptions of creativity fo stering and the creativity fo stering behaviors.The results promptus to put an eye on the growth of teachers' teaching-regulated ability after mastering conceptions of creativity fostering in the teacher training program.

The objective of this studywas to investigate the stigma experience and stigma perceptionamong childrenaffected by HIV/AIDS after the irparents infecting HIV and dying of AIDS,and to explore how stigma experience and stigma perceptionaffect on mental health of the children.Totally,we recruited 1221 children including double AIDS orphan,single AIDS orphan,a ffected children in rural China.Data of demographic information,stigma experience and stigma perception,and mental health problems(including depression,lone liness,self-esteem) were collected through a self-administrated questionnaire.Data revealed that:(1) Younger children,double A IDS orphan reported remarkably higher level of stigma experience and stigma perception than those their counterparts,and it was smiilar to the depression,lone liness,self-esteemexcept there was no significant difference in depression inage;(2) Children who got higher score in stigma experience and stigma perceptiona lso had significant higher depression,loneliness and lower self-esteem;(3) There was significan trelationship between stigma experience and stigma perception,between stigma experience,stigma perceptionand mental health conditions.We found stigma experience could affect mental health directly and stigma perception could be the mediator bewteen stigma experience and mental health.

To explore the relationship between gratitude and school life satisfaction,and also the mediatingeffects of coping style,839 students from 7 junior middle schoo ls in Guangzhou were selected to fill in questionnaires of gratitude,cop ing style and school life satisfaction.The results indicated that:(1) there were significant differences between female and male junior students in gratitude,put another way,scores of girls were higher than that of boys in the aspects of general and human orientation gratitude;(2) Gratitude was positively associated with school life satisfactionand the relationship was partially mediated by coping style.

To explore characteristics and relationships of peer attachment,self-concept and loneliness of students in reform school,207 students in reform school and 112 students in junior school in Shanghai were investigated by IPPA、Loneliness Scale and Tennessee self-concept scale.The results showed that:(1) Compared to students in junior school,less trust,more alienation,stronger loneliness in those in reform school;(2) In reform school,students of grade two had more negative self-concept than those of other grades; girls had more negative self-concept and felt more lonely than boys;(3) The paths which dimensions of peer attachment predicted loneliness were different;(4) Models which different dimensions of self-concept mediated relationship between peer attachment and loneliness were different between students in reform school and those in junior school.

The objective of this study was to study undergraduates' attitudes towards online versus face-to-face counseling and accelerate their changes.The researchers sent 603 questionnaire packets including four scales to five universities to investigate the undergraduate Students' attitudes towards online versus face-to-face counseling to examined the influence of gender,grades,experience(ever counseling or never),and personal p sychological variables(stigma,social anxiety,and self-concealment) on these two kinds of attitudes.The results were that attitudes towards face-to-face counseling were better than that towards online counseling,but two scales of attitudes towards online counseling were above neutral evaluaton.At the same time the stigma,self-concealment and communicationapprehension could predict attitude towards face-to-face counseling,but they could not predict attitudes towards online counseling.They concluded that online counseling could alleviate risk factors and promote students' asking help behaviors.

Atotal of 1306 subjects from six elementary schools were tested with Children Sense of Coherence Scale(CSOC) to evaluate its appropriateness for use in Chinese cultural background and exp lore the development status of SOC on the pupils.Psychometric analysis indicated that the Chinese version of CSOC had satisfactory item discriminationand test-retest reliability.Results of Exploratory Factor Analysis and Confirmatory Factor Analysis indicated that the scale consisted of two factors.C riterion-related validity was also examined by using the measure of loneliness as the criterion.The results of MANOVA showed significant grade and gender difference on SOC.Overall,the results suggested the Chinese version of CSOC provides a reliable and valid measure of children's Sense of Coherence in Chinese cultural context.

The aim of the study was to introduce and revise a short-form Egna Minnenav Barndoms Uppfostran(s-EMBU),which could be used to measure perceived parental rearing behavior in China.712 undergraduate students from three universities participated in the investigation.Exploratory factor analysis indicated thats-EMBU for Chinese(s-EMBU-C) had three subscales(Rejection,Emotional Warmth and over Protection) with effective 6,7 and 8 items respectively.Indices of reliability were between 0.74-0.84 for the internal consistency(C ronbach's a coefficient),0.73-0.84 for split-half reliability,0.70-0.81 for test-retest estimates(101 participates were retested 10 weeks later).Confirmative factor analysis found the scale had good construct validity.Criterion-related validity was demonstrated through the scale's relation with Chinese 115-item version of EMBU,Eysenckian dimensions of personality,sex role orientationand self-esteem.In sum,the s-EMBU-C met psychometric criteria.

Whether cognitive development is continuous or discontinuous is concerned theoretically in developmental psychology.So far,researchers have come torealize that development is of both continuity and discontinuity.Hence,the key question is when cognitive development is continuous and when discontinuous.This issue is closely related to the methods and criteria to detect discontinuity.The present study aimed to introduce three methods to detect the discontinuity of cognitive development:scalogramanalysis and multip le tasks method; Rasch and Saltus model analysis; the app lication of catastrophe theory.Finally,some factors which have influence on the detection of developmental discontinuity were emphasized.

This article reviewed the concepts and research paradigms of visual perspective-taking,concluded related researches from both the work in comparative psychology and in developmental psychology,and analyzed the origins and developmental features of visual perspective-taking.There lations bewteen visual perspective-taking theory ofmind,and the influence of linguistic abilities and culture,were a lso discussed.Finally,we pointed out that further studies should paymore attention to the following issues:finding a serial of paradigms to invest igate the different levels of visual perspective-taking,summarizing the evolution of visual perspective-taking,investigating the neural mechanism of the different levels of visual perspective-taking,and finding the in fluential factors whichmight mipact the development and application of visual perspective-taking.

In three experiments of 44 participants,we intended to examine effects of verbal second interference task on the retention of objects and spatial locations w ith different verbal demand in working memory.We adopted the method of a delayed match-to-sample task in which subjects are presented with astimulus(S1)that contains object or spatial information that has to the retained for a delayed comparison with a second stimulus(S2).W hen verbal second interference task was inserted into S1-S2 interval,we want to investigate which kind of working memory perform ance(object working memory or spatial working memory)demonstrated greater sensitivity to this interference task.The main results are as follows:the verbal encoding mechanism always played an important role in the maintenance of object information in working memory,whether memory stimuli is unfamiliar objects,or nameable objects when test stimuli is graphic form or forms of words;however,in experiment using nameable spatial locations as memory stimuli,whether the verbal encoding mechanism was selected,depended on the experimental conditions.

This research investigated 3-to 5-year-old's understanding of the role of intention and action in pretense.There are two main perspectives on how children understand pretense.One view is that children understand the mental aspects of pretending.The alternative view is that children just understand the action aspects of pretending.This research used video approach to test these two interp retations.In the experiment,the experim enter presented children with 3 types of videotaped scenarios:with intention-with action、with intention-noaction、nointention-with action,and asked the children to answer whether the protagonists were pretending.The results of this study suggest that in certain facilitating conditions (intention information salient)children can understand the mental aspects of pretending,and the familiarity of the pretend animal maybe affect children's understanding of the pretending.

To examine the general characteristics of mastery motivation and the effect of behavioreva luation on it, 71 children were tested in situational expermients.The results are as follows:for 3-year-old ch ildren:(1)mastery motivation for newfangled toy was strong;(2)various visual and auditory feedback could motivate their more exploration and manipulation;(3)they showed more pleasure when evalluated positivelly on their exploration;(4)the emotional experience from success and failure was significantly differen;t(5)positive evaluation could increase their interest when succeed ing,and decrease their negative emotion when failing;(6)most of the children(94142%)wanted to try challenge and persist long tmie for completion,while individual differences existed.

By means of three tasks which include nomination-copying,selection-construction and free drawing,the current study is intended to examine cognition of four basic emotions which include happiness,sadness,anger and surprise in children aged 3 to 5 years.The results are as follows:(1) children name correctly happ iness,sadness,and anger earlier than surprise,their cognition on 4 basic emotions increases by age in general, though the developmental tendencies vary;the cognition on happiness is best of allwhile the age between 3 and 4 is the rapid development period for cognition on sadness and surprise;(2)Children can select the most representative emotional label according to different emotions and show no preference for mouth generally;(3)the main effect of tasks is significant, and they perform best in copying while worst in free drawing;(4)the previous hints or problem space lmiiting more possibly activate and enrich the acquired emotion symbol.

Learning how to decode the print is the p rimary task for children after entering into elementary school. Decoding is about converting w ritten symbols into sound and meaning.Researchers often tested decoding skills by word reading accuracy,grapheme-phoneme corresponding rules(GPC rules)using and word reading fluency.In alphabetic languages such as English,decoding was repeatedly revealed as playing an important role in reading for early graders.However,the importance might decrease as children entered into higher grades.In Chinese,there are a large number of semantic-phonetic compound characters,which contain a semantic component that gives a clue to meaning and a phonetic component that may give a clue to pronunciation.In contrast to English,there are no direct and transparent corresponding rules like GPC for Chinese character reading.Chinese character decoding skills also can be examined with respect to character reading accuracy,Chinese character orthography-phonology and orthography-semantic connection rules and character reading fluency.The p resent study aimed to examine the roles of various Chinese character decoding skills in Chinese reading comprehension among native Chinese-speaking children in grade 2 and grade 4.One hundred and two 2^nd graders(45 boys,57 girls,meanage=8.33 years;SD=0.33)and 106 4^th graders(50 boys,56 girls,meanage=10143 years;SD=0.35)completed Chinese language comprehension test,Chinese reading comprehension test,Chinese character reading accuracy test,Chinese character reading fluency test,phonetic decoding and semantic radical decoding test.Results showed that after controlling for the effects of Chinese language comprehension,Chinese character decoding skills significantly accounted for considerable amount of variance of Chinese reading comprehension at both 2^nd grade and 4^th grade.Among the four character decoding skills,after controlling for the effects of language comprehension and other Chinese character decoding skills,character reading accuracy significantly accounted for unique variance of Chinese reading comprehension in both 2^nd grade and 4^th grade;character reading fluency accounted for unique variance of Chinese reading comp rehension in the 2^nd grade,but not in the 4^th grade;phonetic decoding and semantic decoding didn't account for unique variance in either grades significantly.These results were discussed with respect to the educational implications of Chinese reading instruction in elementary grades.

In order to explore the role of interdiscip linary concept mapping in interdiscip linary know ledge integration,this study designed an intervention program of interdiscip linary concept mapping,chose secondary school students as the participants,and used the approach of comparing experimental and control groups to examine the effect of interdiscip linary concept mapping on interdiscip linary academic achievement.The results indicated that:(a)the intervention of interdiscip linary concept mapping significantly improved the learners'interdiscip linary academic achievement;(b)as for the learners with different levels of academic achievement,the intervention significantly improved interdiscip linary academic achievement of the low and medium achievers,but no significant effect was found on that of high achievers.Those suggested that interdiscip linary concept mapping,as an intellectual tool of adaptation,can effectively learners'interdiscip linary academic achievement,but its effect varies for different levels of achievers.

Orientation towards future events or outcomes is an important feature of individuals'thoughts and behaviors.To explore the adolescents'personal planning and attitude towards future,1995 Chinese adolescents from six regular senior high schools and six secondary vocational schools were employed to complete the Chinese Version of Future Orientation Questionnaire.The main findings were as follows:Regular senior high school students reported more commitment concerning future education and more optimism about future education and occupation than secondary vocational school students;moreover,regular senior high school students in urban areas reported more exp loration concerning future education and less commitment related to marriage/family than urban secondary vocational school students,while regular senior high school students in rural areas showed less exploration and commitment concerning future occupation than rural secondary vocational school students;rural adolescents reported higher levels of commitment concerning future occupation and marriage/family and they were also more optimistic about future education than urban adolescents did;females reported higher levels of commitment to future education than males,while males reported higher levels of exploration and commitment than females;furthermore,rural males showed more optimism concerning future marriage/family than rural females.

Based on the predictive models of female body dissatisfaction,the current study attempted to enhance body satisfaction and built healthy body viewpoint among adolescent girls,by means of a system of cognition-orientated intervention activities in regular training courses.The statistical result indicated that the intervention program could effectively prevent the further increase of junior girls'body dissatisfaction,while the difference between intervention group and controlled group of senior girls were not statistically significant.According to the survey and interviews conducted to girls in intervention group,researchers found that intervention program had a certain positive impact on both junior girls and senior girls.In addition,the results revealed that most parents reported their satisfaction to our intervention activities in the survey.These finding suggest that implementing the school-based intervention program has some certain feasibility and it's worth further expanding and promoting.

The Internet Use Decisional Balance Questionnaire(IDBQ)was constructed based on our interview and other researches in this area.Data were collected from 1166 Chinese undergraduate students from 7 universities. The initial sample was splitrandomly into wtosamples in proportion about 2:3(N₁=441;N₂=725).An exploratory factor ana lysis(EFA)and a confirmatory factor analysis(CFA)were conducted on the two samples respectively.The results showed that IDBQ included two subscales:pros and cons.The pros subscale included 4 dmiensions:mood relaxing,know ledge acquiring,communication facilitating,and ach ievement obtaining;the cons subscale included 4 d miensions:relationship harming,schooling abandoning,vacuous&distress,and money wasting.IDBQ showed good reliability and valid ity and could serve as a measurement tool on university students. decision balance about internet use in China.

From doma in-spec ific perspective,based on open2ended questionnaire,this research was intended to construct the questionnaire of teacher career maturity of normal school students,and it conta ined attitude questionnaire and capability questionnaire.2056 undergraduates were tested previously,and 5512 undergraduates were tested formally,the results showed that the atitude questionnaire included four dimensions:internal orientation,decisiveness,independence and external orientation;and the the questionnaire of teacher career maturity of normal school studen ts had acceptable reliability and validity.In addition,the research also found that general careermaturity couldn't predict teacher careerm aturity of normal school students,normal school students. teacher career maturity was higher than the non-normal students.,normal school students't eacher careerm aturity was growing as the grades increased.

The first step was to put forward the theoretical structure of the teacher achievement goal which was formed on the basis of Elliot's evaluation standard of goal achievement and his framework about ability efficiency. The research collected samples from over a dozen of primary school and middle school teachers in and out of Zhejiang Province.The analysis was carried out on 523 valid questionnaires.The results of exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory analysis indicated that the structure of the teachers'achievement goal orientation include 6 factors,they are absolute-avoidance,individual-avoidance,reference-avoidance,individual-approach,reference-approach,abso lute-approach.Additionally,the relationship of teachers'personal goals and schools'goal structures were discussed.This research collected samp les from more than a dozen of other schools,and the analysis was based in 625 valid questionnaires.The result indicated that mastery goal structure had positive effect on absolute-approach goal,individual-approach goal,but negative effect on absolute-avoidance goal;performance goals structure had positive effect on absolute-approach goal,reference-approach goal,individual-avoidance goal and reference-avoidance goal.

To develop a questionnairem easuring the marital attachment style for older people,items from 18 existent and widely used questionna ires were colected together as the item source.A fter the in itial screening by pilot study, 85 items were identified as the primary items of the questionna ire.And then 434 older people aged from 60 to 88 years old completed this 85-item measurement. Among the participants,222 were male and 212 were female.With item analysis and exploratory factor analysis,18 items were identified as good representative of the questionna ire. Factory analysis ind icated that the final 18-item scale comprised three sub-scales,namely security,anxiety and avoidance.The reliab ility and validity were examined respectively and showed that the questionnaire had satisfactory psychometric features.The distribution of attachment style among older adults was explored tentatively with the sample.With discrim inative analysis,all the participants could be categorized into three types of attachment styles,i.e.secure attachment with the highest ratio,anxious at achment and refusal attachment with the lowest ratio.

Amounts of research on working memory began focusing on the individual difference.Firstly,episodic buffer was introduced into the multi-component model of working memory.Secondly,the dual-task paradigm approved the view that executive control(attention)is the core of individual difference in working memory. Working memory capacity was recommended as another method for measuring the individual difference of working memory.The controversy of the relationship between working memory and g-factor is never calm down.The reviews suggested that the domain-general and domain-specific,as well as the neuroscience method might be the future trend in the field of individual difference in working memory.

Young children have problems in false-belief tasks.This is at least partially the result of the curse of know ledge.The curse of know ledge is a tendency to be biased by one's own know ledge when attempting to app reciate a more naive or uninformed perspective.This article introduced the curse of know ledge account from six aspects:(1)the concept of the curse of know ledge;(2)parallels in children's and adults' limitations in mental-state reasoning;(3)the curse of know ledge in false-belief tasks;(4)reduce the curse of know ledge;(5) problems in current research;(6)some ideas for future research.

Temperament represents the typical pattern of individual behavioral and emotional reactions to stimuli, which is the basis for the development of human personality characteristics.Alarge number of research findings have indicated that genetic factors play an important role in exp laining individual differences in temperament. Relations between serotonin transporter genes and dopam ine D4 receptor genes,such as single nucleotide polymorphisms and anxiety-related and novelty seeking traits were first examined in adults over 10 years ago. Since then,numerous candidate genes have been tested for their association with personality traits.However,most of the existing studies in this area have focused on adult personality traits;there are few studies about genes and temperament in children.Because child temperament and adult personality traits may share certain biological processes,genes that related to adult personality traits may have similar effects on child temperament.In this paper,candidate genes that contributed to child temperament are discussed based on the research involving both adult personality traits and child characteristics.

Based on maturing scalar timing model and related neurological evidences,researchers provide a better understanding in two effects of emotion:the physiological effect and the attentional effect.the physiological effect may prolong perceived duration while the attentional effect may shorten it.with different characteristics respectively in the process.This study investigated age-related variations in judging the timing duration of emotional facial expressions compared with neutral stimulus.Children aged 3 to 8 years were tested on a temporal bisection task with the display of various facial expression pictures between 800 ms and 3200 ms.Results are as follows:(1) a significant effect of comparing timing duration is observed,this means all age groups are able to estimate timing duration,though the sensitivity is improving with age; (2) the judgments of timing duration of all the tested children were disturbed by their emotion,under emotional stimuli their judgments were proved to be longer than that of neutral stimuli; (3) angry stimuli were judged to be longer than happy ones in their perception of timing duration,physiological arousal effects were more obvious.

Based on maturing scalar timing model and related neurological evidences,researchers provide a better understanding in two effects of emotion:the physiological effect and the attentional effect.the physiological effect may prolong perceived duration while the attentional effect may shorten it.with different characteristics respectively in the process.This study investigated age-related variations in judging the timing duration of emotional facial expressions compared with neutral stimulus.Children aged 3 to 8 years were tested on a temporal bisection task with the display of various facial expression pictures between 800 ms and 3200 ms.Results are as follows:(1) a significant effect of comparing timing duration is observed,this means all age groups are able to estimate timing duration,though the sensitivity is improving with age; (2) the judgments of timing duration of all the tested children were disturbed by their emotion,under emotional stimuli their judgments were proved to be longer than that of neutral stimuli; (3) angry stimuli were judged to be longer than happy ones in their perception of timing duration,physiological arousal effects were more obvious.

Based on maturing scalar timing model and related neurological evidences,researchers provide a better understanding in two effects of emotion:the physiological effect and the attentional effect.the physiological effect may prolong perceived duration while the attentional effect may shorten it.with different characteristics respectively in the process.This study investigated age-related variations in judging the timing duration of emotional facial expressions compared with neutral stimulus.Children aged 3 to 8 years were tested on a temporal bisection task with the display of various facial expression pictures between 800 ms and 3200 ms.Results are as follows:(1) a significant effect of comparing timing duration is observed,this means all age groups are able to estimate timing duration,though the sensitivity is improving with age; (2) the judgments of timing duration of all the tested children were disturbed by their emotion,under emotional stimuli their judgments were proved to be longer than that of neutral stimuli; (3) angry stimuli were judged to be longer than happy ones in their perception of timing duration,physiological arousal effects were more obvious.

Belief-desire reasoning is an important aspect of theory of mind,but there is no any systematic studies on children's second order belief-desire reasoning.Based on the dimensions of "true-false" and "approach-avoid" principles,this study subdivided children's second-order belief-desire reasoning ability into four aspects,and explored performance in these four aspects among children aged 5 to 8 years.It is a 4(ages)×4(tasks) between subjects design.The results showed that different second-order belief-desire tasks have different degrees of difficulty for children,which proceeds in an easy-difficult way:second order true belief approach desire,second order false belief approach desire,second order true belief avoid desire,second order false belief avoid desire.

Belief-desire reasoning is an important aspect of theory of mind,but there is no any systematic studies on children's second order belief-desire reasoning.Based on the dimensions of "true-false" and "approach-avoid" principles,this study subdivided children's second-order belief-desire reasoning ability into four aspects,and explored performance in these four aspects among children aged 5 to 8 years.It is a 4(ages)×4(tasks) between subjects design.The results showed that different second-order belief-desire tasks have different degrees of difficulty for children,which proceeds in an easy-difficult way:second order true belief approach desire,second order false belief approach desire,second order true belief avoid desire,second order false belief avoid desire.

Belief-desire reasoning is an important aspect of theory of mind,but there is no any systematic studies on children's second order belief-desire reasoning.Based on the dimensions of "true-false" and "approach-avoid" principles,this study subdivided children's second-order belief-desire reasoning ability into four aspects,and explored performance in these four aspects among children aged 5 to 8 years.It is a 4(ages)×4(tasks) between subjects design.The results showed that different second-order belief-desire tasks have different degrees of difficulty for children,which proceeds in an easy-difficult way:second order true belief approach desire,second order false belief approach desire,second order true belief avoid desire,second order false belief avoid desire.

We adopted two experiments to explore developmental trend of the self-reference effect and determine the age at which children begin to show the self-reference effect.One is a 3 (age:4,5 and 7 years old)×2 (cue:self-reference and other-reference) mixed design and 72 children participated; another is a 2 (age:3 and 4 years old) ×2 (cue:self-reference and other-reference) mixed design and 48 children participated.Each of the twelve object pictures was marked with sign which means the object belongs to "me" or "Li Ming",pictures were randomly presented sequentially,children were asked to report aloud"This is my ××" or "This is Li Ming's ××" according to the signs,then received the picture from the experimenter and placed the picture in a paper box which was marked with the corresponding sign,then presented the next one.Two minutes later,a surprised recall test was required.The results showed as follows:(1) there was significant difference among 4-,5-and 7-year-olds under the self-reference condition,but no difference was found under the other-reference condition; (2) the 4-year-olds recalled more than the 3-year-olds under the self-reference condition,and there was no difference under the other-reference condition.The results indicated 4-year-olds can show self-reference advantage,meanwhile,with the growth of age,recall rate demonstrated a developmental trend under the self-reference condition,which suggested the developmental characteristic of the self-reference in childhood.To date,the previous studies (Sui & Zhu,2005) which explored the development of the self-reference discovered the self-reference at 5 years old.We suggest that when tasks are suitable for children who are from at least 18 months old to 4 years old,SRE would emerge in these children,which is consisted with Marsh et al.(2002) who suggested that 18-month-old children can recognize themselves in mirrors.

We adopted two experiments to explore developmental trend of the self-reference effect and determine the age at which children begin to show the self-reference effect.One is a 3 (age:4,5 and 7 years old)×2 (cue:self-reference and other-reference) mixed design and 72 children participated; another is a 2 (age:3 and 4 years old) ×2 (cue:self-reference and other-reference) mixed design and 48 children participated.Each of the twelve object pictures was marked with sign which means the object belongs to "me" or "Li Ming",pictures were randomly presented sequentially,children were asked to report aloud"This is my ××" or "This is Li Ming's ××" according to the signs,then received the picture from the experimenter and placed the picture in a paper box which was marked with the corresponding sign,then presented the next one.Two minutes later,a surprised recall test was required.The results showed as follows:(1) there was significant difference among 4-,5-and 7-year-olds under the self-reference condition,but no difference was found under the other-reference condition; (2) the 4-year-olds recalled more than the 3-year-olds under the self-reference condition,and there was no difference under the other-reference condition.The results indicated 4-year-olds can show self-reference advantage,meanwhile,with the growth of age,recall rate demonstrated a developmental trend under the self-reference condition,which suggested the developmental characteristic of the self-reference in childhood.To date,the previous studies (Sui & Zhu,2005) which explored the development of the self-reference discovered the self-reference at 5 years old.We suggest that when tasks are suitable for children who are from at least 18 months old to 4 years old,SRE would emerge in these children,which is consisted with Marsh et al.(2002) who suggested that 18-month-old children can recognize themselves in mirrors.