The study explored 6 to 8 years old children's understanding of the phenomenon that differed in observer's expectation leading to different interpretations to the same ambiguous information.The factors influencing the observer's expectation include perceptual experience,knowledge level,prior experience,and social prejudice were manipulated,and participants were required to predict the observer's interpretations of restricted view drawings or ambiguous actions.The results indicated that 6-year-olds could only partly understand that observer's social prejudice influence their interpretation of actor's behavior,and they could not understand that prior perceptual experience and knowledge level influence observer's interpretations of visual stimuli,they could not understand that previous experience influence how observer interprets actor's behavior either.7-year-olds could understand all the factors influencing expectations,except knowledge level.8-year-olds could understand difference in interpretations due to a variety of observer's expectations.They seemed to have stable interpretive theory of mind,though they still did not reach the fully mature understanding of the complex issue of interpretation.

This study examined children's development of desire-belief understanding and emotion understanding of theory of mind,and discussed the relat ion between the abilities to understand desire-belief and emot ion.256 children aged 3-6 participated in this study,and methods of experiment and interview were conducted.The results showed that:(1) there are age-related increases in development of desire-belief understanding and emotion understanding in theory of mind of children aged 3-6; 4-year-old children are in the critical period of the ability of belief-based emotion understanding; and children aged 4-5 are in the critical period of the ability of emotional perspect ive-taking;(2) the ability of false belief understanding appears earlier than the ability of belief-based emotion understanding;(3) there is a significant correlation between of desire-belief understanding and emot ion understanding.

This research was to develop a useful questionnaire for measuring the quantity of family shared reading based on the Chinese cultural background and conduct a further study for the relationship between shared reading and the oral vocabulary of 32 to 5-year-old children.A checklist,Children's Book Title List(BTL) was developed with satisfactory reliability and validity.The quantity of family shared reading explained unique variance in children's oral vocabulary after controlling for the intelligence of young children and parental educational level.The power of prediction of the Children's Book Title list was better than that of parent-reported frequency of shared reading.

The present study was intended to research the development of selective attention of primary school children and its influential factors.The subjects were grade one,three and five of primary school children.We focused on how number of distractor,cue validity and singleton or non-singleton affect the development of selective attention of primary school children.The results indicated that:(1) grade three(aged 8～9 year) children showed significant attention shift;(2)children's selective attention processing speed was slower roughly 300～1100 ms in the same task;(3) the effect of number of distractor,cue validity and singleton or non-singleton on children's selective attention processing speed was consistent with adults,however,children's processing had durative developmental trend.

The research selected 33 grade 2 students of a primary school,among whom boys and girls are half-and-half.Their age is between 83 and 106 months.The average is 94 months.Microgenitic design was used.Children's memory performances were tested in 5 independent interval using a words list including 15 words within 3 categories.The Results were as follows:(1) during the development of the category memory strategy,there are the processes of sudden change as well as gradual change,category encoding strategies had production def iciency,category retrieval strategies are spontaneous gradual changing process.,and both of them will increase suddenly after training;(2) when tasks are unfamiliar,a few children have the phenomenon of the category encoding strategies and retrieval strategies applying defects.

This study selected logogriph(a riddle about a Chinese Character) problem as the material and investigated the theory of the activation of prototypal matters in insight problem solving through the "Xvs.X(X=3,6,9)" learning and testing experimental paradigm,and explored whether the activation of prototypal matters was effected by the increasing of the amount of learning and the elicitation index.The results showed that:(1) the activation of prototypal matters wasn't effected evidently by the increasing of the amount of learning;(2) "elicitation" was an effective index and it greatly effected the activation of prototypal matters;(3) the results supported the idea that the activation of the prototypal matters came as a result of automatic processing and the activation of heuristic information in prototypal matters maybe the result of automatic processing.

In a sample of 400 adolescents included parents-seft-for-work(PLW) group,father-left-for-work(FLW) group and parents-stay-at-home(PSH) group from rural areas of Henan Province,the present study investigated adolescents' perception of social support networks and their associations with individual depression and loneliness.Variable-centered and person-centered analyses revealed that adolescents' perception of social supports tends to be similar across relationships,and was more similarly across relationships in the same environment than in the different environment.Variable-centered analyses indicated that teacher supports and father supports significantly predicted the variance of adolescents' depression,and mother supports and classmates supports significantly predicted the variance of adolescents' loneliness in general.However,the predication powers of supports from different relationship functioned as adolescents' group.Person-centered analyses indicated that adolescents who reported high social support in all four relationship had lower depression and loneliness than those from other social support networks.

Gender and age are always two important factors in emotion research.Some studies show that positive emotions promote cognitive flexibility.Task switching is the most important component of cognitive flexibility.This study investigated the impact of positive emotions on task switching among different grades and gender.A digital judgment task was administered to 52 undergraduates(18 male,34 female),36 high school students(19 male,17 female),45 middle school students(20 male,25 female) following brief presentation of emotional pictures.The task involved maintaining condition and switching condition.First,participants were trained to respond to target digit appearing in a prespecified color while ignoring distracter digit in a different color.Then participants were transferred to switching conditions.They had to respond to stimuli in a new color while distracters appeared in the previous target color.The results showed that for male students,positive emotions promoted task switching only in middle school.However,for female students,this promotion effect existed in all the grades.

Random sampling by the whole class was used in this study,60-adolescents and their parents in two ordinary middle schools of Lanzhou,Gansu province were selected,and a self-constructed questionnaire was adopted to explore the characteristics of parent-adolescent communication.The results indicated that the self-constructed Questionnaire on Parent-Adolescent Communication had good reliability and validity,which included Adolescents.Communication with Parents Questionnaire and Parents.Communication with Adolescents Questionnaire.Concerning adolescents.communication with parents,girls communicated with parents better than boys did,and the 8^th grade students.communication were the worst among four grades.Concerning parents.communication with adolescents,parents communicated better with girls than boys,communicated better with the 7^th,10^th and 11^th grade students than the 8^th grade students.Compared with fathers,mothers communicated better with children,and the difference showed on the dimensions of Questionnaire on Parent-Adolescent Communication.

To analyze the relationships between attachment,general self-efficacy and depressive symptoms,929 junior middle school students were asked to complete the IPPA,GESE,and SDS.The results are as follows:(1) there were strong negative relations between father,mother,peer attachment and depressive symptoms,between general self-efficacy and depressive symptoms; peer attachment was positively related to both father and mother attachment;(2) a model was presented in which father(mother) attachment had a direct impact on peer attachment,meanwhile father(mother) attachment directly influenced both depressive symptoms and general self-efficacy and the influence of both father(mother) and peer attachment on depressive symptoms were partly mediated by general self-efficacy.

A survey using a cluster sampling of undergraduates was conducted to examine the relationship between future time perspective(FTP),goal orientation,social connectedness and academic adjustment.A total of 708 undergraduates participated in filling in a package of anonymous questionnaire.The results are as follows:(1) FTP,learning orientation,and social connectedness were positively related to academic adjustment,while performance orientation was negatively related to academic adjustment;(2) the relationship between behavioral commitment(the behavioral tendency component of FTP),future purpose consciousness(the cognitive component of FTP),future image(the cognitive component of FTP),social connectedness and academic adjustment was partially mediated by learning orientation; performance orientation partially mediated the relationship between future purpose consciousness and academic adjustment.However,future efficacy and far-goal orientation(the affective component of FTP) had no impact on academic adjustment.

The study explored the status of the employed mothers' job burnout and the relation of job burnout,self-esteem and social support,by surveying 380 employed women including working as teachers,nurses and business service people with questionnaires.The results showed that:(1) the job burnout's level of the employed mothers was significant higher than the employed women without children;(2) self-esteem had a significant negative correlation with the burnout of the employed mothers; social support from different sources had a significant negative correlation with one or more dimensions of the employed mothers' job burnout;(3) self-esteem played a mediating role between social support and job burnout.

The eye-movement-contingent display change technique was used in this study to explore the perceptual span of the fifth graders.The results are as follows:(1) the fifth graders' perceptual span in Chinese reading was asymmetric;(2) the fifth graders'perceptual span was 1 character to the left of the fixated character and 2 or 3 characters to its right.

129 junior high school students were selected.A version of the modified Stroop color-naming task was used to examine their reacting time on naming the color of different words,including high achievement-related words,low achievement-related words and neutral words.The results suggest that the students'reacting time toward achievement-related words is longer than that toward neutral words,especially for low achievement-related words.The difference between the two is significant,representing typical Stroop interference.RT of students with high scores is longer than that of students with low scores toward all 3 kinds of words.The difference is significant regarding achievement-related words.Students with high scores show more typical Stroop interference.Student performance correlates significantly with RT toward achievement-related words.RT of girl students is longer than that of boy students toward all 3 kinds of words.The difference is significant regarding high achievement-related words.Girl students show more significant Stroop interference than boy students.

This study is intended to investigate the effect of abstract and background music on learner's self-rating cognitive load and learning performance,and students are requested to learn material about mobile communication with multimedia presentation.The results are as follows:(1) there was no interaction between abstract and background music;(2) students who were asked to abstract the material got lower scores on cognitive load and higher scores on transfer test than those who are not asked to do that,but there was no significant difference on retention test between the two groups;(3) students learned with background music got lower scores on retention test than those without music,while there was no significant difference on cognitive load and transfer test between them.

Social validity method is used to study implicit theories of teachers.255 Participants were selected from middle school.The results are as follows:(1) 28 important psychological traits of creativity were found in the views of teachers;(2) the adjectives ranked first include imaginative,fond of thinking,discernment,self-confidence,motivation,curiosity,attention to new things,grasp the rule in phenomena,capacity of logical reasoning,recognize the similarities and differences in between things;(3) those adjectives can be synthesized as five factors:novel and flexible thinking style,curiosity and good at questioning,logical thinking,problem-advancing,confident and aggressive characteristic.

The classic working memory and processing speed task were used as material,working memory evaluation were used as instrument,and undertaking the approach of screening learning disabilities,and 52 middle school students from 3 different secondary schools were used as subjects in this study.The results are as follows:(1) compares with the control group,the Chinese learning disabilities children has the obvious insufficiency in the working memory and the processing speed aspect,but the processing speed cannot explain the different ability group's difference,the Chinese learning disabilities children's flaw lies in the working memory ability the drop;(2) the working memory flaw lies in the verbal working memory and the central executive function insufficiency,with regards the spatial working memory ability to have nothing to do with.The Chinese learning disabilities already have the general working memory flaw(central executive function),and they also have the specific working memory(verbal working memory) ability insufficiency.

This study examined dyslexia automatization deficit hypothesis using the serial reaction time(SRT) task.41 dyslexic and 41 age and IQ matched normal readers in the fifth and the sixth graders were assessed by a visuomotor sequence learning task with both random and sequence trials.Implicit learning was measured by comparing reaction time to the sequence against reaction time to a random display.Result indicated that although the dyslexic group was slower overall than the control group,contrary to the expectation of the automatization deficit theory,Chinese dyslexia children demonstrated significant sequence-specific reaction time decrement as well as those normal readers.This result suggested that automatic skill learning was intact in Chinese dyslexic individuals.

To explore internet addicts whether they have negative social cognition processing on coding and recognition,this study investigated coding and recognition of internet addicts through mode of Tverskty's ocial cogntion.The results are as follows:(1) internet addicts have much more negative coding than non-internet addicts,and they have more negative coding biases than non-internet addicts;(2) internet addicts have more negative recognition than non-Internet addicts,and they have more negative recognition biases than non-Internet addicts.

Representational capacity can be measured in terms of the complex degree of relations individual can comprehend and understand.Based on the relational-representational complexity model developed by Xin Ziqiang,combined with the relational complexity theory proposed by Halford,a computerized Figural Representational Capacity Test was designed for measuring children.The test consisted of 50 items,which belonged to 25 categories.The test was used in the study to measure 265 subjects from grade 3,4,5 and 6.Results showed that:(1) Most items'difficulty,distinctiveness were good;(2) Reliability,constructs validity,criterion related validity of the test were also satisfactory;(3) The prior analysis of task complexity(involving analysis of dimensions in every item and elements included in every dimension) based on the two theories could fully predict task difficulty(R²=0.83).Such results indicted that the test could be an effective and reliable instrument for measuring children's representational level.

This study use parents-reported longitudinal data to investigate the stability and changes of children's problem behavior from 2 to 11 years old. The results indicated moderate degree of correspondence between interparental reports of children's behavior at 2,4,7,and 11 years old. 2-year-old children have most behavior problem,which decrease when children get older,and 11-yearold children have least behavior problem. The children's problem behavior have moderate stability,the correlation between 2,4,7,11 years old is very significant.

In traditional opinion,the function of category is to support inductive reasoning. According to this view, children's categorization wauld be consistent with categorybased induction. If child categorize objects based on similarity,they would also make induction based on similarity. Otherwise,when child categorize objects based on concept,they would use concept to make induction. Recently,Slo utsky,Kloos and Fisher (2007)'s study showed that children' s categorization and induction had a disassociation. In fact,many studies showed that young children would mainly base on similarity to classify objects whereas children would base on similarity or concept to support induction in different tasks. These studies indicated that it wauld have a complex relationship between categorization and category based induction in early development.Total 96 4-yearold children were divided into four tasks including categorization tasks and induction tasks in photos and drawings. In other words,it was designed to be 2(materials:photos and drawings) ×2(tasks:categorization and induction) between subjects. Each task included six groups of items. Each experimental group included three items;the first was the target stimulus and the second and third were the selective stimulus. The second one was similarity wrath the first but belong to different concept and the third one was dissimilarity wrath the first but belong to the same concept. In photos,children showed inconsistently between categorization and category-based induction. They based on similarity in categorization but mainly based on concepts in induction. However,children showed consistently between categorization and induction in drawnngs. They mainly used similarity to categorization and induction. The relationship would be complex in early categorization and category-based induction. It would be necessarily to integrate the work on categorization and category-based induction.

In the present study, the protagonist of a false belief task was descxlbed,"smut" or "stupid" in order to examine whether the trait labels are able to affect false belief understanding in children. 360 five-to eight-yera-old children were exmnined, and each age group was randomly divided into three subgoups("slnaxt" label group, no label group,"stupid" label group).The results indicated as that:(1)"smart" label greatly hindered six and seven years yearold children understand other' false beliefs, but not influenced five and eight yeay-olld children;(2)"stupid" label had no influence on children at all ayes.

128 five to ten yearold children from Beijing were asked to answer 24 simply questions.Half of the questions were sensible base on general knowledge;the other half were nonsensical for these questions could not be answered based on general knowledge. Accordingly,their correct answers should also be "I don't know" or something like this. The results showed:(1)Chinese children had a tendency to speculate or guess answers when they answered nonsensical questions,and the question format affected children's response tendency,there were more correct answers to open questions then closed questions when answering nonsensical questions. (2) there were differences among ages,older children gave more correct answers then younger on nonsensical questions not included a comparison. (3) children answered rare "No" then "Yes" to closed nonsensical questions not included a comparison,but not to closed nonsensical questions included a comparison.

The study compared the changing conditions of inhibition of return (IOR) in children when the single and double cue-target procedures were used respect ively, and 80 participants were divided into four groups of 6-years-old (n=20), 9-years-old (n=20), 12-years-old (n=20) and 17-years-old (n=20). The results revealed that (1) IOR in children appears earlier in single procedure and IOR is delayed in double procedure; (2) the time course of IOR appears gradually with increase of age. The IOR might be influenced by the age; (3) the critical period of development of IOR of children is probably the time when he or she is about 12 years of age.

The inhibition deficits of ADHD were explored by the nonselective stop signal task in the most previous studies. But it is still not explicit that which causes the inhibition deficit found in stop task, the race between execution and response inhibition or the response variability. The more accurate selective stop signal task was used to explore the deficit of ADHD in this research. It was found that the ADHD group made more commission errors than controls, and they have larger response variability than controls, but there is no difference in the processing speed. We suggest that the disinhibition of ADHD is not caused by the slow cognition tempo rather than by the failure to maintain the optimal arousal state.

Social Creative Tendency Questionnaire for Primary Schoolchildren and Parenting Style Scale (EMBU) were administered to 363 primary schoolchildren randomly selected from grade 3 to grade 6 to investigate the relationship between social creative tendency of primary schoolchildren and their parenting style. The results showed that: (1) significant positive correlation existed between social creativity tendency and paternal emotional warmth and understanding and favoritism, and negative correlation existed between the tendency and paternal punishment and sternness, and similar correlation matrix was found for maternal parenting style; (2) only the first pair of canonical variables of social creativity tendency and paternal or maternal parenting style was significant, showing that individual influence among peers, problem-solving ability, social intelligence and initiative and conscientiousness had significant canonical correlation with paternal emotional warmth and understanding and favoritism.

Path analysis was used to explore the impacts of working memory, processing speed and reasoning ability on grade 3 to 5 students' strategy adaptivity. The effects of the three factors on strategic adaptation were analyzed systematically. The results indicate that, (1) the total effects of working memory, reasoning ability and processing speed on strategic adaptation are descending. Both reasoning ability and working memory have direct effects on strategic adaptaction, but the former is bigger. (2) Working memory has indirect effect on strategic adaptation via reasoning ability. Processing speed doesn't have direct effect, but there are two paths for it to produce indirect effect. (3) Age has direct effect on processing speed and reasoning ability, but it has no significant effect on working memory. (4) There is no direct effect of age on strategic adaptation, but there are three paths for age to produce indirect effect on strategic adaptation. The development of strategy adaptivity is based on working memory and reasoning ability.

The aims of this study were to explore if the loadings on the first un rotated factor can be taken as a way to evaluate the task complexity of the balance scale task and to explore the validity of the prior analysis on the balance scale task based on the Relational-Representational Complexity Model. 264 children from grade 4, 5 and 6 were presented with a computerized balance scale task. There were 51 items and six item types, including weight problems, distance problems, weight distance problems, conflict weight problems, conflict distance problems, and conflict balance problems. Results showed that: (1) the loadings of all balance scale items on the first un rotated factor and the difficulty of those items had no significant positive relation. It might be that task complexity could be quantified by the loadings on the first un-rotated factor only when the difficulty of task was moderate. (2) The analysis of task complexity based on the Relational-Representational Complexity Model could predict task difficulty (R²=0 95), which indicated that the model was valid in analyzing the complexity of the balance scale task.

The research investigated the character of migrant children and its relations to their personalities and family functioning. 806 migrant children and 319 children in Beijing completed the children's problem behaviors questionnaire, the five-factor personality inventory and family funct ioning inventory. The result showed: (1) Migrant children. s externalizing problem behaviors showed significant gender differences. The percentages of the internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors are 3110% and 2011%. Compared to the urban children, migrant children showed more problem behaviors especially the internalizing problem. (2) In terms of the internalizing problem behaviors, the neuroticism and openness in personality had positive effect, extraversion and familiarity had negative effect; In terms of the externalizing problem behavior, the neuroticism and openness in personality also had positive effect, agreeableness, conscient iousness and familiarity had negative effect. (3) For connections among personality, family function and problem behavior, personality is more immediately related with the sense of isolation, which serves in part as medium between familiarity and internalizing problem behavior, serves completely medium between familiarity and externalizing problem behavior.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of parental disclosure on their children's interpersonal competences with their peers. 68 triadic parent-child samples, 204 persons in total, participated in this study by filling anonymous scales. Average age of parents was 44, while that of children was 17.Children filled out Interpersonal Competence Questionnaire, and their parents completed two scales, called Self-Disclosure Scale and Disclosure Topics and Motivations Scales. Findings revealed: (1) There were some differences between father and mother in disclosure topics, motivations, and styles. (2) Children's competences can be predicted by parental disclosure motivations and styles, but the variances of children's variables which can be accounted by parental variables were different. (3) Children's abilities of Negative Assertion and Emotional Support were predicted by maternal and paternal variables together, while the others abilities were predicted by paternal variables respectively.

This study investigated adolescents. ego identity status development and the relations among parenting authoritativeness, identity style and ego identity status on 1233 adolescents ranging from middle school to university, using the revised Extend Objective Measure of Ego Identity Status22, Identity Style Inventory23 and Parenting Style Questionnaire. The results indicated as follows: (1) a progressive developmental trend was found on adolescents. identity statuses from junior middle school to senior middle school. There are no significant difference on percentage of four identity statuses between senior middle school and university; (2) Male college students were more on the identity achievement status than female college students. (3) Parenting authoritativeness had both direct and indirect influences on identity statuses. Indirect influences were moderated by informational identity style and diffuse identity style.

Methods of questionnaire and Structural Equation Models were used to investigate the relationship between empathy and aggressive behavior, and also the mediat ing effects of the anger-hostility action. Data were collected with 305 students from two middle schools. The results indicate that: (1) Oral aggression is the primary form of aggressive behaviors in middle school students; the gender and the grade have influence on aggressive behavior; (2) The anger-hostility action plays the mediating role between empathy and aggressive behavior; (3) Empathy to others impacts negatively on aggressive behavior through the mediating role. However, sensitivity of self2feeling is a two-way process, including both positive effect by mediating role and direct inhibitory effect.

To explore the relationship between family functioning process and family functioning outcome and the effect mechanism of family functioning on adolescents. emotional problems. 422 Chinese adolescents were tested using Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale(family functioning outcome) by Olson, Family Assessment Measure(family functioning process) by Skinner, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, Self-Rating Anxiety Scale. By correlation analysis, Hierarchical Regression, Structural Equation Modeling analysis, it suggested that (1) Adolescents. emotion was normal totally; (2) Every dimension of family functioning process has significant correlation with every dimension of family functioning outcome one other; (3) family functioning process had a stronger predicting effect on adolescent emotional problem than outcome (4) family functioning outcome was a part mediator between family functioning process and adolescents. emot ional problems.

In order to examine the relationship between gender role and the quality of cross-gender intercommunication, related scales were used to survey 311 college students. The results showed that there were significant differences in love experiences both between different genders and among different gender role types; masculine and androgynous individuals were significant higher than feminine and undifferentiated ones in General Cross-gender Intercommunication Scale. Main effects of gender and gender role type were both significant in the scores of Intimate Cross-gender Intercommunication Scale. In conclusion, the gender role types of college students had close relationship with the quality of cross-gender intercommunication.

Self esteem is not only high or low, but also has different types in each level. Memory bias lies not only among groups, but also in groups themselves. However, very few researches are paid enough attention to these issues. 4(types of self-esteem)×2(valence of words) mixed design was mainly adopted in this study to explore different memory bias of self-relevant information of 184 participants with different self-esteem, in which types of self-esteem were divided according to the consistency between explicit self-esteem, measured with Rosenberg (1965) Self Esteem Scale, and implicit self-esteem, measured with Implicit Association Test. The results were as follows: (1) participants with high explicit self-esteem had more posit ive memory bias than those with low self-esteem; while those with low implicit self esteem had less positive or negative memory bias than those with low self-esteem. (2) for the memory bias as a kind of difference in groups, all groups had positive bias; for the bias as a kind of difference among groups, participants with fragile high self-esteem had more positive bias, but those with low self-esteem had no obvious negative bias either. These results indicate that people with different self-esteem, in different levels or different types, have different memory bias of self-relevant information.

The relationship between Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN), single word reading and fast reading among children of different reading abilities was explored in present paper. A series of stepwise regression were conducted to test the relative contribution of RAN and character reading for fast reading comprehension, with IQ and age controlled for in the first step. It was found that, RAN explained more variances for dyslexics' character reading; as for fast reading, the results indicated that RAN had a selective predictive value for different reading processes and different reading abilities.

307 participants were divided into homogeneous field dependent group, homogeneous field independent group and heterogeneous group by the cognitive style of individual. The problem solving level of individual and group were investigated in two kinds of problem setting: open-end problem setting and reasoning problem setting. The results are as follows: (1) The field independent individuals open-end problem solving level were significant better than that of field dependent individuals, but there is no significance between field dependent individuals and field independent individuals in reasoning problem solving level. (2) The diversity between individuals in cooperat ive group was the obstacle of group members, and that would influence the problem solving level. To which degree the diversity would influence the problem solving dependent on how much communication and collaboration did the problem itself need. (3) Compare to reasoning problem solving, heterogeneous group do better in open-end problem solving.