午后小睡对认知功能影响的元分析

doi:10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2025.02.03

Abstract

Abstract: In accordance with the PRISMA-Protocol, a meta-analysis of 42 studies (total sample size = 1751) was conducted to examine the effects of an afternoon nap on cognitive function and its moderator variables with task performance. Results showed that compared with the control condition, an afternoon nap had a moderate positive effect size on cognitive function (g = 0.59, k = 130, p < 0.001). Results of the subgroup analyses showed that the cognitive domain and age were significant moderators. An afternoon nap could improve executive function, declarative memory, and procedural memory, but not attention function; compared with the youth, the minor and the old could get more benefits from napping. Besides, other moderators (i.e., nap duration, experience with napping, sleep restriction the night before, and the time point of re-testing tasks after napping) had no incpact on the effects of napping.

Key words: afternoon nap, cognitive function, effect, moderator variable

CLC Number:

B844

QIAN Liu, RU Taotao, CHEN Yuping, ZHANG Chenze, ZHOU Guofu. A Meta-analysis of the Effects of an Afternoon Nap on Cognitive Function[J].Psychological Development and Education, 2025, 41(2): 173-184.

References

(^*为纳入元分析的文献)
^*Alger, S. E., Lau, H., & Fishbein, W. (2010). Delayed onset of a daytime nap facilitates retention of declarative memory. PLoS ONE, 5(8), Article e12131. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012 131
^*Backhaus, J., & Junghanns, K. (2006). Daytime naps improve procedural motor memory. Sleep Medicine, 7(6), 508-512.
^*Backhaus, W., Braass, H., Renne, T., Kruger, C., Gerloff, C., & Hummel, F. C. (2016). Daytime sleep has no effect on the time course of motor sequence and visuomotor adaptation learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 131, 147-154.
Balkin, T. J., Rupp, T., Picchioni, D., & Wesensten, N. J. (2008). Sleep loss and sleepiness: Current issues.Chest, 134(3), 653-660.
^*Baran, B., Mantua, J., & Spencer, R. M. (2016). Age-related changes in the sleep-dependent reorganization of declarative memories. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 28(6), 792-802.
Borbély, A. A. (1982). A two process model of sleep regulation.Human Neurobiology, 1(3), 195-204.
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction to meta-analysis. Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Boukhris, O., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Abdessalem, R., Hsouna, H., Glenn, J. M., … Chtourou, H. (2020). A 90 min daytime nap opportunity is better than 40 min for cognitive and physical performance. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(13), Article 4650. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17134650
Brehm, J. W., & Self, E. A. (1989).The intensity of motivation. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 109-131.
Brooks, A., & Lack, L. (2006). A brief afternoon nap following nocturnal sleep restriction: Which nap duration is most recuperative?Sleep, 29(6), 831-840.
Carrero, I., Vilà, I., & Redondo, R. (2019). What makes implementation intention interventions effective for promoting healthy eating behaviours? A meta-regression. Appetite, 140, 239-247.
^*Cellini, N., Goodbourn, P. T., McDevitt, E. A., Martini, P., Holcombe, A. O., & Mednick, S. C. (2015). Sleep after practice reduces the attentional blink. Attention, Perception & Psychophysics, 77(6), 1945-1954.
^*Cellini, N., Mercurio, M., Vanzetti, V., Bergamo, D., & Sarlo, M. (2020). Comparing the effect of daytime sleep and wakefulness on mnemonic discrimination. Physiology & Behavior, 224, Article 113078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113078
^*Cellini, N., Torre, J., Stegagno, L., & Sarlo, M. (2016). Sleep before and after learning promotes the consolidation of both neutral and emotional information regardless of REM presence. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 133, 136-144.
^*Chen, P. C., Whitehurst, L. N., Naji, M., & Mednick, S. C. (2020). Autonomic activity during a daytime nap facilitates working memory improvement. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 32(10), 1963-1974.
Chen, Q., Ru, T., Yang, M., Yan, P., Li, J., Yao, Y., … Zhou, G. (2018). Effects of afternoon nap deprivation on adult habitual nappers’ inhibition functions.BioMed Research International, 2018, Article 5702646. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/5702646
^*Davidson, P., Jonsson, P., & Johansson, M. (2020). A daytime nap does not increase mnemonic discrimination ability. Journal of Sleep Research, 30(3), Article e13128. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13128
^*Denis, D., Mylonas, D., Poskanzer, C., Bursal, V., Payne, J. D., & Stickgold, R. (2021). Sleep spindles preferentially consolidate weakly encoded memories. The Journal of Neuroscience: The Official Journal of the Society for Neuroscience, 41(18), 4088-4099.
^*Desrochers, P. C., Kurdziel, L. B. F., & Spencer, R. M. C. (2016). Delayed benefit of naps on motor learning in preschool children. Experimental Brain Research, 234(3), 763-772.
Dinges, D. F. (1992). Adult napping and its effects of ability to function. In C. Stampi (Ed.), Why we nap (pp. 118-134). Birkhauser, Boston, MA.
Driskell, J. E., & Mullen, B. (2005). The efficacy of naps as a fatigue countermeasure: A meta-analytic integration.Human Factors, 47(2), 360-377.
Dutheil, F., Bessonnat, B., Pereira, B., Baker, J. S., Moustafa, F., Fantini, M. L., … Navel, V. (2020). Napping and cognitive performance during night shifts: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sleep, 43(12), Article zsaa109. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa109
Dutheil, F., Danini, B., Bagheri, R., Fantini, M. L., Pereira, B., Moustafa, F., … Navel, V. (2021). Effects of a short daytime nap on the cognitive performance: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(19), Article 10212. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910212
Egger, M., Davey Smith, G., Schneider, M., & Minder, C. (1997). Bias in meta-analysis detected by a simple, graphical test.BMJ, 315(7109), 629-634.
Ferrarelli, F., Kaskie, R., Laxminarayan, S., Ramakrishnan, S., Reifman, J., & Germain, A. (2019). An increase in sleep slow waves predicts better working memory performance in healthy individuals.Neuroimage, 191, 1-9.
Fu, R. W., Gartlehner, G., Grant, M., Shamliyan, T., Sedrakyan, A., Wilt, T. J., … Trikalinos, T. A. (2011). Conducting quantitative synthesis when comparing medical interventions: AHRQ and the Effective Health Care Program. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 64(11), 1187-1197.
^*Genzel, L., Kiefer, T., Renner, L., Wehrle, R., Kluge, M., Grozinger, M., … Dresler, M. (2012). Sex and modulatory menstrual cycle effects on sleep related memory consolidation. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 37(7), 987-998.
^*Geyer, T., Mueller, H. J., Assumpcao, L., & Gais, S. (2013). Sleep-effects on implicit and explicit memory in repeated visual search. PLoS ONE, 8(8), Article e69953. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0069953
^*Gorfine, T., Yeshurun, Y., & Zisapel, N. (2007). Nap and melatonin-induced changes in hippocampal activation and their role in verbal memory consolidation. Journal of Pineal Research, 43(4), 336-342.
^*Gottselig, J. M., Hofer-Tinguely, G., Borbely, A. A., Regel, S. J., Landolt, H. P., Retey, J. V., & Achermann, P. (2004). Sleep and rest facilitate auditory learning. Neuroscience, 127(3), 557-561.
Guyatt, G., Oxman, A. D., Akl, E. A., Kunz, R., Vist, G., Brozek, J., … Schünemann, H. J. (2011). GRADE guidelines: 1. Introduction—GRADE evidence profiles and summary of findingstables. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 64(4), 383-394.
Hayashi, M., Ito, S., & Hori, T. (1999). The effects of a 20-min nap at noon on sleepiness, performance and EEG activity.International Journal of Psychophysiology, 32(2), 173-180.
Hayashi, M., Motoyoshi, N., & Hori, T. (2005). Recuperative power of a short daytime nap with or without stage 2 sleep. Sleep, 28(7), 829-836.
Hsouna, H., Boukhris, O., Abdessalem, R., Trabelsi, K., Ammar, A., Shephard, R. J., & Chtourou, H. (2019). Effect of different nap opportunity durations on short-term maximal performance, attention, feelings, muscle soreness, fatigue, stress and sleep. Physiology & Behavior, 211, Article 112673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112673
Huedo-Medina, T. B., Sanchez-Meca, J., Marin-Martinez, F., & Botella, J. (2006). Assessing heterogeneity in meta-analysis: Q statistic or I2 index?Psychological Methods, 11(2), 193-206.
^*Kaida, K., Takeda, Y., & Tsuzuki, K. (2013). The effects of short afternoon nap and bright light on task switching performance and error-related negativity. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 11(2), 125-134.
Kallapiran, K., Koo, S., Kirubakaran, R., & Hancock, K. (2015). Review: Effectiveness of mindfulness in improving mental health symptoms of children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(4), 182-194.
^*Korman, M., Dagan, Y., & Karni, A. (2015). Nap it or leave it in the elderly: A nap after practice relaxes age-related limitations in procedural memory consolidation. Neuroscience Letters, 606, 173-176.
^*Kurdziel, L., Duclos, K., & Spencer, R. M. (2013). Sleep spindles in midday naps enhance learning in preschool children. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(43), 17267-17272.
^*Landry, S., Anderson, C., & Conduit, R. (2016). The effects of sleep, wake activity and time-on-task on offline motor sequence learning. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 127, 56-63.
^*Lau, E. Y. Y., Wong, M. L., Lau, K. N., Hui, F. W., & Tseng, C. H. (2015). Rapid-eye-movement-sleep (REM) associated enhancement of working memory performance after a daytime nap. PLoS ONE, 10(5), Article e0125752. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125752
^*Lau, H., Tucker, M. A., & Fishbein, W. (2010). Daytime napping: Effects on human direct associative and relational memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 93(4), 554-560.
Lefebvre, C., Glanville, J., Briscoe, S., Featherstone, R., Littlewood, A., Marshall, C., … Wieland, L. S. (2022). Chapter 4: Searching for and selecting studies. In Higgins, J. P. T., Thomas, J., Chandler, J., Cumpston, M., Li, T., Page, M. J., & Welch, V. A. (Eds). Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions version 6.3 (updated February 2022). Cochrane.
Leong, R. L. F., Yu, N., Ong, J. L., Ng, A. S. C., Jamaluddin, S. A., Cousins, J. N., … Chee, M. W. L. (2021). Memory performance following napping in habitual and non-habitual nappers.Sleep, 44(6), Article zsaa277. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa277
^*Lo, J. C., Dijk, D. J., & Groeger, J. A. (2014). Comparing the effects of nocturnal sleep and daytime napping on declarative memory consolidation. PLoS ONE, 9(9), Article e108100. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0108100
^*Lokhandwala, S., & Spencer, R. M. C. (2021). Slow wave sleep in naps supports episodic memories in early childhood. Developmental Science, 24(2), Article e13035. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.13035
Lowe, C. J., Safati, A., & Hall, P. A. (2017). The neurocognitive consequences of sleep restriction: A meta-analytic review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 80, 586-604.
MacDonald, K. J., Lockhart, H. A., Storace, A. C., Emrich, S. M., & Cote, K. A. (2018). A daytime nap enhances visual working memory performance and alters event-related delay activity. Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral Neuroscience, 18(6), 1105-1120.
Mantua, J., & Spencer, R. M. C. (2017). Exploring the nap paradox: Are mid-day sleep bouts a friend or foe?Sleep Medicine, 37, 88-97.
^*Milner, C. E., & Cote, K. A. (2008). A dose-response investigation of the benefits of napping in healthy young, middle-aged and older adults. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 6(1), 2-15.
Milner, C. E., & Cote, K. A. (2009). Benefits of napping in healthy adults: Impact of nap length, time of day, age, and experience with napping. Journal of Sleep Research, 18(2), 272-281.
^*Milner, C. E., Fogel, S. M., & Cote, K. A. (2006). Habitual napping moderates motor performance improvements following a short daytime nap. Biological Psychology, 73(2), 141-156.
Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., Altman, D. G., & Prisma Group (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement.PLoS Medicine, 6(7), Article e1000097. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Monk, T. H. (2005). Aging human circadian rhythms: Conventional wisdom may not always be right.Journal of Biological Rhythms, 20(4), 366-374.
Morgan, A. J., Ross, A., & Reavley, N. J. (2018). Systematic review and meta-analysis of Mental Health First Aid training: Effects on knowledge, stigma, and helping behaviour. PLoS ONE, 13(5), Article e0197102. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0197102
^*Morita, Y., Ogawa, K., & Uchida, S. (2012). The effect of a daytime 2-hour nap on complex motor skill learning. Sleep and Biological Rhythms, 10(4), 302-309.
^*Morita, Y., Ogawa, K., & Uchida, S. (2016). Napping after complex motor learning enhances juggling performance. Sleep Science, 9(2), 112-116.
^*Nishida, M., & Walker, M. P. (2007). Daytime naps, motor memory consolidation and regionally specific sleep spindles. PLoS ONE, 2(4), Article e341. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0000341
^*Ong, J. L., Lau, T. Y., Lee, X. K., van Rijn, E., & Chee, M. W. L. (2020). A daytime nap restores hippocampal function and improves declarative learning. Sleep, 43(9), Article zsaa058. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsaa058
Orwin, R. G. (1983). A fail-safe N for effect size in meta-analysis.Journal of Educational Statistics, 8(2), 157-159.
^*Pereira, S. I. R., Beijamini, F., Vincenzi, R. A., & Louzada, F. M. (2015). Re-examining sleeps effect on motor skills: How to access performance on the finger tapping task? Sleep Science, 8(1), 4-8.
Qian, L., Ru, T., Chen, Q., Li, Y., Zhou, Y., & Zhou, G. (2021). Effects of bright light and an afternoon nap on task performance depend on the cognitive domain. Journal of Sleep Research, 30(4), Article e13242. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13242
Rasch, B., & Born, J. (2013). About sleep’s role in memory. Physiological Reviews, 93(2), 681-766.
^*Ren, J., Guo, W., Yan, J. H., Liu, G., & Jia, F. (2016). Practice and nap schedules modulate children’s motor learning. Developmental Psychobiology, 58(1), 107-119.
Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M.(2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments.Chichester, West Sussex, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Ru, T., Chen, Q., You, J., & Zhou, G. (2019). Effects of a short midday nap on habitual nappers’ alertness, mood and mental performance across cognitive domains. Journal of Sleep Research, 28(3), Article e12638. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12638
Sattari, N., Whitehurst, L. N., Ahmadi, M., & Mednick, S. C. (2019). Does working memory improvement benefit from sleep in older adults? Neurobiology Sleep Circadian Rhythms, 6, 53-61.
Scullin, M. K., Fairley, J., Decker, M. J., & Bliwise, D. L. (2017). The effects of an afternoon nap on episodic memory in young and older adults. Sleep, 40(5), Article zsx035. https://doi.org/10.1093/sleep/zsx035
Sholtes, D., Kravitz, H. M., Deka, A., Westrick, J., Fogg, L. F., & Gottlieb, M. (2021). Optimising sleep and performance during night float: A systematic review of evidence and implications for graduate medical education trainees. Journal of Sleep Research, 30(4), Article e13212. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13212
^*Simor, P., Zavecz, Z., Horvath, K., Elteto, N., Torok, C., Pesthy, O., … Nemeth, D. (2018). Deconstructing procedural memory: Different learning trajectories and consolidation of sequence and statistical learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 2708. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02708
^*Slama, H., Deliens, G., Schmitz, R., Peigneux, P., & Leproult, R. (2015). Afternoon nap and bright light exposure improve cognitive flexibility post lunch. PLoS ONE, 10(5), Article e0125359. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0125359
^*Takahashi, M., & Arito, H. (2000). Maintenance of alertness and performance by a brief nap after lunch under prior sleep deficit. Sleep, 23(6), 813-819.
^*Takahashi, M., Fukuda, H., & Arito, H. (1998). Brief naps during post-lunch rest: Effects on alertness, performance, and autonomic balance. European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology, 78(2), 93-98.
Tassi, P., & Muzet, A. (2000). Sleep inertia.Sleep Medicine Reviews, 4(4), 341-353.
Taub, J. M., Tanguay, P. E., & Clarkson, D. (1976). Effects of daytime naps on performance and mood in a college student population. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 85(2), 210-217.
^*Tietzel, A. J., & Lack, L. C. (2001). The short-term benefits of brief and long naps following nocturnal sleep restriction. Sleep, 24(3), 293-300.
Tokizawa, K., Sawada, S., Tai, T., Lu, J., Oka, T., Yasuda, A., & Takahashi, M. (2015). Effects of partial sleep restriction and subsequent daytime napping on prolonged exertional heat strain. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 72(7), 521-528.
^*Tucker, M. A., & Fishbein, W. (2008). Enhancement of declarative memory performance following a daytime nap is contingent on strength of initial task acquisition. Sleep, 31(2), 197-203.
^*Tucker, M. A., Hirota, Y., Wamsley, E. J., Lau, H., Chaklader, A., & Fishbein, W. (2006). A daytime nap containing solely non-REM sleep enhances declarative but not procedural memory. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, 86(2), 241-247.
^*van Schalkwijk, F. J., Sauter, C., Hoedlmoser, K., Heib, D. P. J., Klösch, G., Moser, D., … Schabus, M. (2019). The effect of daytime napping and full-night sleep on the consolidation of declarative and procedural information. Journal of Sleep Research, 28(1), Article e12649. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.12649
^*Verweij, I. M., Onuki, Y., Van Someren, E. J., & Van der Werf, Y. D. (2016). Sleep to the beat: A nap favours consolidation of timing. Behavioral Neuroscience, 130(3), 298-304.
Vollestad, J., Nielsen, M. B., & Nielsen, G. H. (2012). Mindfulness- and acceptance-based interventions for anxiety disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 51, 239-260.
^*Wamsley, E. J., Tucker, M. A., Payne, J. D., & Stickgold, R. (2010). A brief nap is beneficial for human route-learning: The role of navigation experience and EEG spectral power. Learning & Memory, 17(7), 332-336.
^*Yan, J. H. (2017). Children benefit differently from night- and day-time sleep in motor learning. Human Movement Science, 54, 297-307.
廖建桥, 许群珍, 袁子云, 吴彤, 李中海. (2000). 午睡在中国的流行性及原因分析. 人类工效学, 6(02), 16-18.
朱玲湘. (2014). Meta分析中发表偏倚的校正方法研究(博士学位论文). 南方医科大学, 广州.

Metrics

Viewed

Full text

Abstract

Cited

Shared

Discussed

Comments

Recommended 0

No Suggested Reading articles found!

[1]	CUI Ziqian, ZHANG Huan, LIU Xiping. The “Saying-Is-Believing” Effect: From the Perspective of Shared Reality Theory [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2025, 41(1): 145-152.
[2]	LIN Wenyi, FAN Xiaoyue, WAN Zhengwei. Validation in Reading Comprehension: Knowledge-based and Text-based [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(6): 905-912.
[3]	LIU Shifan, ZHANG Rong, WANG Meifang, FANG Yongchao, ZHAO Jianshe. Spontaneous Inferences of Children with Long-term Exposure to Parental Corporal Punishment [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(5): 616-624.
[4]	YANG Yunmei, ZHAO Lihua, LI Jing. Social Working Memory Training and Its Transfer Effect [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(5): 750-760.
[5]	NIU Hua, WANG Meifang. The Relations between Parental Corporal Punishment and Children’s Executive Function: A 3-year Longitudinal Study [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(4): 479-487.
[6]	XIONG Mingling, WANG Quanquan, XIONG Yuke, JIANG Wenqi, REN Ping. The Effect of Adolescents’ Perception of Parental Academic Pressure on Psychological Adaptation:The Protective Role of Ego-resilience [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(4): 542-550.
[7]	YU Linwei, LI Shuang, LIU Shen, PAN Wenpei, XU Qiang, ZHANG Lin. The Positivity Effect of Ambiguous Facial Expressions Recognition and Its Mechanism in Older Adults [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(2): 196-206.
[8]	LIU Yan, ZHANG Hongfei, LU Xin, QU Kejia. Test Effect in Mathematical Probability Problem Solving Learning and Effective Promotion [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(2): 215-223.
[9]	WANG Yulong, ZHAO Jingfei, LIN Xiuyun. Cumulative Effects of Family Risk Factors on Adolescent Non-suicidal Self-injury and Its Gender Difference [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(2): 240-247.
[10]	XIAO Jialin, LIANG Kaixin, HUANG Liuyue, WANG Enna, HUANG Qiaomin, HE Yunhan, LU Baolin, CHI Xinli. The Cumulative Effects, Relationship Model, and the Effects of Specific Positive Development Assets in Reducing Adolescent Depression [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(2): 257-269.
[11]	YAN Zhiqiang, ZHOU Ke, ZENG Xiao, XU Hui, ZHU Xiaoqian, ZHANG Juan. The Relationship between Preschooler’s Executive Function and Aggressive Behavior: The Mediation Effect of Cognitive Empathy [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2023, 39(6): 788-797.
[12]	WANG Lijuan, MA Jialin. Imagery Encoding in Action Memory of Art Students and Non-art Students [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2023, 39(4): 457-464.
[13]	NIU Xiang, RAN Guangming. The Association between Peer Relationship and Preschoolers' Problem Behavior: A Three-level Meta-analysis [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2023, 39(4): 473-487.
[14]	MA Xing, LIU Wenli. The Mechanism of Vowel Influence on Stops Identification in Chinese Monosyllables [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2023, 39(4): 513-521.
[15]	GAO Feng, BAI Xuejun, ZHANG Peng, CAO Haibo. A Meta-analysis of the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Suicidal Ideation in Chinese Adolescents [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2023, 39(1): 97-108.

A Meta-analysis of the Effects of an Afternoon Nap on Cognitive Function

RichHTML

PDF (PC)

Abstract

Cite this article

share this article

References

Related Articles 15

Metrics

Comments

Recommended 0