走神研究的理论、方法与展望

doi:10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2020.03.14

摘要/Abstract

摘要： 走神是一种将注意从当前主要任务转移到内部思维的认知现象，具有刺激独立、任务无关、主观自发等特点。其测量方法以主观报告法为主，同时也采用行为实验、电生理技术和认知神经科学等方法。本文重点回顾了走神的二分结构、负面结果和潜在功能等方面的研究成果。然后，在此基础上，从走神的发生机制及其与执行控制的关系角度，介绍了三个理论观点：执行资源假设、控制失败假设和资源控制假设。根据最新研究进展预测，未来对走神概念将会做更细致的区分，并考虑结合元认知监测相关理论进行研究，这不仅可以为学习者提供具体的指导建议，还将进一步加深我们对意识、元认知和注意的理解。

关键词: 走神, 思维取样, 执行资源假设, 控制失败假设, 资源控制假设, 元认知

Abstract: Mind-wandering is a common everyday experience for everyone, which refers to a shift of attention away from a primary task toward internal trains of thought. Given the spontaneous and subjective nature of MW, existing measurements typically rely on subjective reports, and some behavioral markers, electro-physiological measures and neurocognitive activity measurements have also been applied to the assessment of MW. After reviewing the studies about the dichotomy of mind-wandering, its negative results and potential functions, we discussed three recent theoretical perspectives proposed to explain how MW occur and its relationship with executive control: executive-resource hypothesis, control-failure hypothesis and resource control account. A more detailed distinction of the concept of MW in the future and a possible combination of metacognitive monitoring theories will provide not only concrete recommendations to learners and instruction, but new insights into consciousness, attention, and metacognition as well.

Key words: mind-wandering, thought sampling, executive-resource hypothesis, control-failure hypothesis, resource control account, metacognition

中图分类号:

B844

王雪枫, 严燕. 走神研究的理论、方法与展望[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2020, 36(3): 367-377.

WANG Xuefeng, YAN Yan. Mind-wandering: Phenomenon, Mechanism and Implications[J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2020, 36(3): 367-377.

参考文献

Albert, D. A., Ouimet, M. C., Jarret, J., Cloutier, M. S., Paquette, M., Badeau, N., & Brown, T. G. (2018). Linking mind wandering tendency to risky driving in young male drivers. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 111, 125-132.
Aston-Jones, G., & Cohen, J. D. (2005). An integrative theory of locus coeruleus-norepinephrine function:Adaptive gain and optimal performance. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 28, 403-450.
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., Mrazek, M. D., Kam, J. W., Franklin, M. S., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Inspired by distraction mind wandering facilitates creative incubation. Psychological Science,23(10), 1117-1122.
Baird, B., Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2011). Back to the future:autobiographical planning and the functionality of mind-wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 20(4), 1604-1611.
Baldwin, C. L., Roberts, D. M., Barragan, D., Lee, J. D., Lerner, N., & Higgins, J. S. (2017). Detecting and Quantifying Mind Wandering during Simulated Driving. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 11, 406.
Bastian, M., & Sackur, J. (2013). Mind wandering at the fingertips:automatic parsing of subjective states based on response time variability. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 573.
Braboszcz, C., & Delorme, A. (2011). Lost in thoughts:neural markers of low alertness during mind wandering. Neuroimage, 54(4), 3040-3047.
Brown, K. W., & Ryan, R. M. (2003). The Benefits of Being Present:Mindfulness and Its Role in Psychological Well-Being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822-848.
Buckner, R. L., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Schacter, D. L. (2008). The brain's default network. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124(1), 1-38.
Bunce, D. M., Flens, E. A., & Neiles, K. Y. (2010). How long can students pay attention in class? A study of student attention decline using clickers. Journal of Chemical Education, 87(12), 1438-1443.
Burke, L. A., & Ray, R. (2008). Re-setting the concentration levels of students in higher education:An exploratory study. Teaching in Higher Education, 13(5), 571-582.
Carriere, J. S. A., Seli, P., & Smilek, D. (2013). Wandering in both mind and body:Individual differences in mind wandering and inattention predict fidgeting. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 19-31.
Cheyne, J. A., Carriere, J. S. A., & Smilek, D. (2006). Absent-mindedness:Lapses of conscious awareness and everyday cognitive failures. Consciousness and Cognition, 15(3), 578-592.
Christoff, K., Gordon, A. M., Smallwood, J., Smith, R., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Experience sampling during fMRI reveals default network and executive system contributions to mind wandering. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106(21), 8719-8724.
Christoff, K., Ream, J. M., & Gabrieli, J. D. (2004). Neural basis of spontaneous thought processes. Cortex, 40(4), 623-630.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Larson, R. (1987). Validity and reliability of the experience-sampling method. The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 175(9), 526-536.
Drescher, L., Van den Bussche, E., & Desender, K. (2018). Absence without leave or leave without absence:Examining the interrelations among mind wandering, metacognition and cognitive control. PLOS ONE, 13(2), e0191639.
Forster, S., & Lavie, N. (2014). Distracted by your mind? Individual differences in distractibility predict mind wandering. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 40(1), 251-260.
Fox, K. C. R., Spreng, R. N., Ellamil, M., Andrews-Hanna, J. R., & Christoff, K. (2015). The wandering brain:Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging studies of mind-wandering and related spontaneous thought processes. Neuroimage, 111, 611-621.
Fox, M. D., Snyder, A. Z., Vincent, J. L., Corbetta, M., Van Essen, D. C., & Raichle, M. E. (2005). The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 102(27), 9673-9678.
Giambra, L. M. (1995). A laboratory method for investigating influences on switching attention to task-unrelated imagery and thought. Consciousness and Cognition, 4(1), 1-21.
Golchert, J., Smallwood, J., Jefferies, E., Seli, P., Huntenburg, J. M., Liem, F., et al. (2017). Individual variation in intentionality in the mind-wandering state is reflected in the integration of the default-mode, fronto-parietal, and limbic networks. Neuroimage, 146, 226-235.
Gorgolewski, K. J., Dan, L., Urchs, S., Kipping, J. A., Craddock, R. C., Milham, M. P., et al. (2014). A Correspondence between Individual Differences in the Brain's Intrinsic Functional Architecture and the Content and Form of Self-Generated Thoughts. PLOS ONE, 9(5), e97176.
Jordano, M. L., & Touron, D. R. (2018). How often are thoughts metacognitive? Findings from research on self-regulated learning, think-aloud protocols, and mind-wandering. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25(4), 1269-1286.
Kajimura, S., Kochiyama, T., Abe, N., & Nomura, M. (2019). Challenge to Unity:Relationship Between Hemispheric Asymmetry of the Default Mode Network and Mind Wandering. Cerebral Cortex, 29(5), 2061-2071.
Kam, J. W., Dao, E., Farley, J., Fitzpatrick, K., Smallwood, J., Schooler, J. W., et al. (2011). Slow fluctuations in attentional control of sensory cortex. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(2), 460-470.
Kane, M. J., Brown, L. H., McVay, J. C., Silvia, P. J., Myin-Germeys, I., & Kwapil, T. R. (2007). For whom the mind wanders, and when an experience-sampling study of working memory and executive control in daily life. Psychological Science, 18(7), 614-621.
Killingsworth, M. A., & Gilbert, D. T. (2010). A wandering mind is an unhappy mind. Science, 330(6006), 932-932.
Krasich, K., McManus, R., Hutt, S., Faber, M., D'Mello, S. K., & Brockmole, J. R. (2018). Gaze-based signatures of mind wandering during real-world scene processing. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 147(8), 1111-1124.
Kucyi, A., Hove, M. J., Esterman, M., Hutchison, R. M., & Valera, E. M. (2017). Dynamic Brain Network Correlates of Spontaneous Fluctuations in Attention. Cerebral Cortex, 27(3), 1831-1840.
Kvavilashvili, L., & Mandler, G. (2004). Out of one's mind:A study of involuntary semantic memories. Cognitive Psychology, 48(1), 47-94.
Levinson, D. B., Smallwood, J., & Davidson, R. J. (2012). The persistence of thought:evidence for a role of working memory in the maintenance of task-unrelated thinking. Psychological Science, 23(4), 375-380.
Mason, M. F., Norton, M. I., Van Horn, J. D., Wegner, D. M., Grafton, S. T., & Macrae, C. N. (2007). Wandering minds:the default network and stimulus-independent thought. Science, 315(5810), 393-395.
McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2009). Conducting the train of thought:working memory capacity, goal neglect, and mind wandering in an executive-control task. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 35(1), 196-204.
McVay, J. C., & Kane, M. J. (2010). Does mind wandering reflect executive function or executive failure? Comment on Smallwood and Schooler (2006) and Watkins (2008). Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 188-197; discussion 198-207.
Metcalfe, J., & Finn, B. (2008). Evidence that judgments of learning are causally related to study choice. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 15(1), 174-179.
Mittner, M., Hawkins, G. E., Boekel, W., & Forstmann, B. U. (2016). A neural model of mind wandering. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(8), 570-578.
Mooneyham, B. W., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). The costs and benefits of mind-wandering:a review. Canadian Journal of Experimental Psychology, 67(1), 11-18.
Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Phillips, D. T., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Mindfulness training improves working memory capacity and GRE performance while reducing mind wandering. Psychological Science, 24(5), 776-781.
Mrazek, M. D., Phillips, D. T., Franklin, M. S., Broadway, J. M., & Schooler, J. W. (2013). Young and restless:validation of the Mind-Wandering Questionnaire (MWQ) reveals disruptive impact of mind-wandering for youth. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 560.
Mrazek, M. D., Smallwood, J., Franklin, M. S., Chin, J. M., Baird, B., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). The role of mind-wandering in measurements of general aptitude. Journal of Experimental Psychology:General, 141(4), 788-798.
Nelson, T. O. (1996). Consciousness and metacognition. American Psychologist, 51(2), 102-116.
Pachai, A. A., Acai, A., LoGiudice, A. B., & Kim, J. A. (2016). The Mind that Wanders:Challenges and Potential Benefits of Mind Wandering in Education. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(2), 134-146.
Poerio, G. L., Peter, T., & Eleanor, M. (2013). Mind-wandering and negative mood:Does one thing really lead to another? Consciousness and Cognition, 22(4), 1412-1421.
Qu, W., Ge, Y., Xiong, Y., Carciofo, R., Zhao, W., & Zhang, K. (2015). The relationship between mind wandering and dangerous driving behavior among Chinese drivers. Safety Science, 78, 41-48.
Raichle, M. E., MacLeod, A. M., Snyder, A. Z., Powers, W. J., Gusnard, D. A., & Shulman, G. L. (2001). A default mode of brain function. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 98(2), 676-682.
Reichle, E. D., Reineberg, A. E., & Schooler, J. W. (2010). Eye movements during mindless reading. Psychological Science, 21(9), 1300-1310.
Robertson, I. H., Manly, T., Andrade, J., Baddeley, B. T., & Yiend, J. (1997). "Oops!":performance correlates of everyday attentional failures in traumatic brain injured and normal subjects. Neuropsychologia, 35(6), 747-758.
Sanchez, C. A., & Naylor, J. S. (2018). Mind-wandering While Reading Not Only Reduces Science Learning But Also Increases Content Misunderstandings. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 7(3), 332-341.
Sayette, M. A., Reichle, E. D., & Schooler, J. W. (2009). Lost in the Sauce The effects of alcohol on mind wandering. Psychological Science, 20(6), 747-752.
Schooler, J. W. (2002). Re-representing consciousness:dissociations between experience and meta-consciousness. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(8), 339-344.
Schooler, J. W., Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., Baird, B., Mooneyham, B. W., Zedelius, C., et al. (2014). The Middle Way:Finding the Balance between Mindfulness and Mind-Wandering. Psychology of Learning and Motivation, 60, 1-33.
Schooler, J. W., Reichle, E. D., & Halpern, D. V. (2004). Zoning out while reading:Evidence for dissociations between experience and metaconsciousness. In D. T. Levin (Ed.), Thinking and seeing:Visual metacognition in adults and children (pp. 203-226). Cambridge MA:The MIT Press.
Schooler, J. W., Smallwood, J., Christoff, K., Handy, T. C., Reichle, E. D., & Sayette, M. A. (2011). Meta-awareness, perceptual decoupling and the wandering mind. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 15(7), 319-326.
Seli, P., Ralph, B. C. W., Konishi, M., Smilek, D., & Schacter, D. L. (2017). What did you have in mind? Examining the content of intentional and unintentional types of mind wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 51, 149-156.
Seli, P., Carriere, J. S. A., & Smilek, D. (2015). Not all mind wandering is created equal:dissociating deliberate from spontaneous mind wandering. Psychological Research, 79(5), 750-758.
Seli, P., Cheyne, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2013). Wandering minds and wavering rhythms:linking mind wandering and behavioral variability. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance, 39(1), 1-5.
Seli, P., Kane, M. J., Smallwood, J., Schacter, D. L., Maillet, D., Schooler, J. W., et al. (2018). Mind-Wandering as a Natural Kind:A Family-Resemblances View. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 22(6), 479-490.
Seli, P., Risko, E. F., Purdon, C., & Smilek, D. (2017). Intrusive thoughts:linking spontaneous mind wandering and OCD symptomatology. Psychological Research, 81(2), 1-7.
Seli, P., Risko, E. F., & Smilek, D. (2016a). Assessing the associations among trait and state levels of deliberate and spontaneous mind wandering. Consciousness and Cognition, 41, 50-56.
Seli, P., Risko, E. F., & Smilek, D. (2016b). On the Necessity of Distinguishing Between Unintentional and Intentional Mind Wandering. Psychological Science, 27(5), 685-691.
Seli, P., Smallwood, J., Cheyne, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2015). On the relation of mind wandering and ADHD symptomatology. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22(3), 629-636.
Singer, J. L. (1966). Daydreaming:An introduction to the experimental study of inner experience. New York, NY, US:Crown Publishing Group/Random House.
Singer, J. L., & McCraven, V. G. (1961). Some characteristics of adult daydreaming. The Journal of Psychology, 51(1), 151-164.
Smallwood, J. (2010). Why the global availability of mind wandering necessitates resource competition:Reply to McVay and Kane (2010). Psychological Bulletin, 136(2), 202-207.
Smallwood, J. (2013). Distinguishing how from why the mind wanders:a process-occurrence framework for self-generated mental activity. Psychological Bulletin, 139(3), 519-535.
Smallwood, J., Brown, K. S., Baird, B., Mrazek, M. D., Franklin, M. S., & Schooler, J. W. (2012). Insulation for daydreams:a role for tonic norepinephrine in the facilitation of internally guided thought. PLOS ONE, 7(4), e33706.
Smallwood, J., Brown, K. S., Tipper, C., Giesbrecht, B., Franklin, M. S., Mrazek, M. D., et al. (2011). Pupillometric evidence for the decoupling of attention from perceptual input during offline thought. PLOS ONE, 6(3), e18298.
Smallwood, J., Davies, J. B., Heim, D., Finnigan, F., Sudberry, M., O'Connor, R., et al. (2004). Subjective experience and the attentional lapse:task engagement and disengagement during sustained attention. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 657-690.
Smallwood, J., Fitzgerald, A., Miles, L. K., & Phillips, L. H. (2009). Shifting moods, wandering minds:negative moods lead the mind to wander. Emotion, 9(2), 271-276.
Smallwood, J., Mcspadden, M., & Schooler, J. W. (2007). The lights are on but no one's home:Meta-awareness and the decoupling of attention when the mind wanders. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 14(3), 527-533.
Smallwood, J., McSpadden, M., & Schooler, J. W. (2008). When attention matters:the curious incident of the wandering mind. Memory & Cognition, 36(6), 1144-1150.
Smallwood, J., Obonsawin, M. C., Baracaia, S. F., Reid, H., O'Connor, R. C., & Heim, S. D. (2002). The relationship between rumination, dysphoria, and self-referent thinking:Some preliminary findings. Imagination, Cognition and Personality, 22(4), 317-342.
Smallwood, J., O'Connor, R. C., Sudberry, M. V., Haskell, C., & Ballantyne, C. (2004). The consequences of encoding information on the maintenance of internally generated images and thoughts:the role of meaning complexes. Consciousness and Cognition, 13(4), 789-820.
Smallwood, J., O'Connor, R. C., Sudbery, M. V., & Obonsawin, M. (2007). Mind-wandering and dysphoria. Cognition & Emotion, 21(4), 816-842.
Smallwood, J., Ruby, F. J. M., & Singer, T. (2013). Letting go of the present:Mind-wandering is associated with reduced delay discounting. Consciousness and Cognition, 22(1), 1-7.
Smallwood, J., & Schooler, J. W. (2006). The restless mind. Psychological Bulletin, 132(6), 946-958.
Smith, R., Keramatian, K., Smallwood, J., Schooler, J. W., Luus, B., & Christoff, K. (2006). Mind-wandering with and without awareness:An fMRI study of spontaneous thought processes. Paper presented at the the 28th annual conference of the cognitive science society, Vancouver, BC, Canada.
Stawarczyk, D., Cassol, H., & D'Argembeau, A. (2013). Phenomenology of future-oriented mind-wandering episodes. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 425.
Stawarczyk, D., Majerus, S., Maj, M., Van der Linden, M., & D'Argembeau, A. (2011). Mind-wandering:phenomenology and function as assessed with a novel experience sampling method. Acta Psychologica, 136(3), 370-381.
Szpunar, K. K., Khan, N. Y., & Schacter, D. L. (2013). Interpolated memory tests reduce mind wandering and improve learning of online lectures. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110(16), 6313-6317.
Szpunar, K. K., Moulton, S. T., & Schacter, D. L. (2013). Mind wandering and education:from the classroom to online learning. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 495.
Teasdale, J. D., Dritschel, B. H., Taylor, M. J., Proctor, L., Lloyd, C. A., Nimmo-Smith, I., et al. (1995). Stimulus-independent thought depends on central executive resources. Memory & Cognition, 23(5), 551-559.
Thomson, D. R., Besner, D., & Smilek, D. (2015). A resource-control account of sustained attention:evidence from mind-wandering and vigilance paradigms. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(1), 82-96.
Unsworth, N., McMillan, B. D., Brewer, G. A., & Spillers, G. J. (2012). Everyday attention failures:an individual differences investigation. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 38(6), 1765-1772.
Unsworth, N., & Robison, M. K. (2018). Tracking arousal state and mind wandering with pupillometry. Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, 18(4), 638-644.
Varao-Sousa, T. L., & Kingstone, A. (2018). Are mind wandering rates an artifact of the probe-caught method? Using self-caught mind wandering in the classroom to test, and reject, this possibility. Behavior Research Methods, 1-8.
Wammes, J. D., Boucher, P. O., Seli, P., Cheyne, J. A., & Smilek, D. (2016). Mind Wandering During Lectures I:Changes in Rates Across an Entire Semester. Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2(1), 13-32.
Weissman, D., Roberts, K., Visscher, K., & Woldorff, M. (2006). The neural bases of momentary lapses in attention. Nature Neuroscience, 9(7), 971-978.
程凯, 曹贵康. (2014). 走神的理论假设、影响因素及其神经机制. 心理科学进展, 22(9), 1435-1445.
高伟伟, 刘兆敏, 王秀红. (2018). 有意走神和自发走神量表的中文版修订. 中国临床心理学杂志, 26(5), 896-899.
鞠恩霞, 张晏宁, 罗扬眉. (2016). 心理游离问卷中文版的修订及其信效度研究. 中国临床心理学杂志, 24(1), 109-111.
刘兆敏, 高伟伟, 罗湘齐. (2017). 自发走神和有意走神及其与元认知的关系. 心理科学, 40(5), 1047-1053.
宋晓兰, 王晓, 唐孝威. (2011). 心智游移:现象、机制及意义. 心理科学进展, 19(4), 499-509.

多维度评价

Viewed

Full text

Abstract

Cited

Shared

Discussed

[1]	董肖肖, 刘岩, 胡亚欣. 儿童、青年与老年人在知觉和高阶元认知监控上的年龄差异[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2023, 39(2): 153-160.
[2]	薛笑然, 黄碧娟, 李红霞, 赵晓萌, 司继伟. 小学儿童数学态度与数学成就的纵向联系：学业拖延和数学元认知的作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2022, 38(4): 520-529.
[3]	慕德芳, 陈英和. 小学高年级学生元认知监测对认知操作输出的影响:执行功能的调节作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2021, 37(3): 305-312.
[4]	雷威, 刘可智, 梁雪梅, 陈晶. 决策信心校准水平对元认知监控作用的影响[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2020, 36(3): 289-295.
[5]	王振宏, 彭源, 赵一萌. 父母婚姻质量与儿童内化问题:父母情绪表达的中介作用与儿童迷走神经活动的调节作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2020, 36(1): 121-128.
[6]	贾宁, 容丽卓, 代景华. 掌握程度和社会性线索对元认知监控的影响[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2019, 35(6): 641-647.
[7]	刘伟方, 张佳佳, 胡冬梅, 张明亮, 司继伟. 元认知监测与算术知识制约小学儿童心算策略运用能力的发展:一年纵向考察[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2019, 35(4): 439-446.
[8]	张婕, 黄碧娟, 司继伟, 官冬晓. 乡镇小学生的数学焦虑与数学成绩:数学自我效能感和数学元认知的链式中介作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2018, 34(4): 453-460.
[9]	张润竹, 赵一萌, 秦荣彩, 王振宏. 学前儿童迷走神经活动与情绪反应、情绪调节及冲动性的关系[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2018, 34(1): 1-9.
[10]	刘伟方, 华晓腾, 封洪敏, 胡冬梅, 司继伟. 算术策略运用能力的年龄差异：元认知监测与算术知识的作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2014, 30(3): 234-243.
[11]	慕德芳, 陈英和. 元认知监控的机制：认知灵活性的调节作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2013, 29(2): 113-120.
[12]	张俊, 刘儒德, 贾玲. 反馈在自我调节学习中的作用[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2012, 28(2): 218-224.
[13]	陈英和, 郝嘉佳. 冲动-思考型儿童在拼图游戏中的问题解决及元认知差异[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2011, 27(3): 241-246.
[14]	聂衍刚, 杨安, 曾敏霞. 青少年元认知、大五人格与学习适应行为的关系[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2011, 27(2): 151-157.
[15]	刘效贞, 张影侠, 司继伟. 初中生的数学估计能力及其与元认知监控的关系[J]. 心理发展与教育, 2009, 25(2): 35-40.