Psychological Development and Education ›› 2025, Vol. 41 ›› Issue (6): 817-829.doi: 10.16187/j.cnki.issn1001-4918.2025.06.06

Previous Articles     Next Articles

Assimilation or Contrast? Effects of Age Stereotypes on Middle-aged Adults’ Subjective Memory

ZHANG Ruzhuo1,2, WANG Dahua1   

  1. 1. Institute of Developmental Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875;
    2. Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300074
  • Published:2025-11-05

RichHTML

PDF (PC)

Abstract: The present research examined age stereotypes’ effects on middle-aged adults’ subjective memory through the mechanism of selective accessibility model (SAM). Participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups or a control group, and age stereotypes were manipulated by reading a passage with different intensity (extreme/moderate) and valence (positive/negative). Experiment 1 directly presented age stereotypes to the participants and subsequently examined their subjective memory. Participants in the experimental groups tended to choose similarity focus and report better subjective memory than the control group. It’s likely that middle-aged adults’ out-group age identity shadowed the intended phenomena. To reduce such influence, experiment 2 asked participants to imagine themselves being old before presenting the age stereotypes. Influences of age stereotypes on subjective memory were found to differ across intensity, in that when participants reported higher resemblance with extreme age stereotypes, their subjective memory would correspond with the stereotypes more; however, we did not find such effects in moderate age stereotypes. The present findings indicate that selective accessibility model could partly explain the mechanisms of age stereotypes, and that future research could investigate how age stereotypes would influence other aspects of middle-aged adults’ life.

Key words: age stereotypes, middle-aged, subjective memory, assimilation effect, contrast effect

CLC Number: 

  • B844
Armstrong, B., Gallant, S. N., Li, L., Patel, K., & Wong, B. I. (2017). Stereotype threat effects on older adults’ episodic and working memory: A meta-analysis. The Gerontologist, 57(Suppl 2), S193-S205.
Brailean, A., Steptoe, A., Batty, G. D., Zaninotto, P., & Llewellyn, D. J. (2019). Are subjective memory complaints indicative of objective cognitive decline or depressive symptoms? Findings from the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing.Journal of Psychiatric Research, 110, 143-151.
Chapman, S., Weiss, D., Broulíková, H. M., Sunderaraman, P., Barker, M. S., Joyce, J. L., … Cosentino, S. (2022). Examining the role of aging perceptions in subjective cognitive decline.Alzheimer Disease & Associated Disorders, 36(4), 288-294.
Commissaris, C. J. A. M., Ponds, R. W. H. M., & Jolles, J. (1998). Subjective forgetfulness in a normal Dutch population: Possibilities for health education and other interventions.Patient Education and Counseling, 34(1), 25-32.
Crumley, J. J., Stetler, C. A., & Horhota, M. (2014). Examining the relationship between subjective and objective memory performance in older adults: A meta-analysis.Psychology and Aging, 29(2), 250-263.
Diel, K., & Hofmann, W. (2019). Inspired to perspire: The interplay of social comparison direction and standard extremity in the context of challenging exercising goals.Social Cognition, 37(3), 247-265.
Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Lang, A.-G., & Buchner, A. (2007). G*Power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences.Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175-191.
Forehand, M. R., Perkins, A., & Reed, A. (2011). When are automatic social comparisons not automatic? The effect of cognitive systems on user imagery-based self‐concept activation.Journal of Consumer Psychology, 21(1), 88-100.
Fung, H. H., Li, T., Zhang, X., Sit, I. M. I., Cheng, S.-T., & Isaacowitz, D. M. (2015). Positive portrayals of old age do not always have positive consequences.The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 70(6), 913-924.
Gosling, S. D., Vazire, S., Srivastava, S., & John, O. P. (2004). Should we trust web-based studies? A comparative analysis of six preconceptions about Internet questionnaires.American Psychologist, 59(2), 93-104.
Hall, N. R., & Crisp, R. J. (2008). Assimilation and contrast to group primes: The moderating role of ingroup identification.Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44(2), 344-353.
Hehman, J. A., & Bugental, D. B. (2013). “Life stage-specific” variations in performance in response to age stereotypes.Developmental Psychology, 49(7), 1396-1406.
Hertzog, C., & Pearman, A. (2014). Memory complaints in adulthood and old age. In T. J. Perfect & D. S. Lindsay (Eds.),The SAGE handbook of applied memory (pp. 423-443). Sage.
Hess, T. M. (2006). Attitudes toward aging and their effects on behavior. In J. E. Birren & K. W. Schaire (Eds.),Handbook of the psychology of aging (pp. 379-406). Elsevier.
Hess, T. M., Auman, C., Colcombe, S. J., & Rahhal, T. A. (2003). The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance.The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(1), 3-11.
Hess, T. M., & Hinson, J. T. (2006). Age-related variation in the influences of aging stereotypes on memory in adulthood.Psychology and Aging, 21(3), 621-625.
Hess, T. M., Hinson, J. T., & Statham, J. A. (2004). Explicit and implicit stereotype activation effects on memory: Do age and awareness moderate the impact of priming?Psychology and Aging, 19(3), 495-505.
Hülür, G., & Gerstorf, D. (2015). Editorial: Subjective perceptions of memory functioning in old age—Nature, correlates, and developmental trajectories.Gerontology, 61(3), 218-222.
Hülür, G., Willis, S. L., Hertzog, C., Schaie, K. W., & Gerstorf, D. (2018). Is subjective memory specific for memory performance or general across cognitive domains? Findings from the Seattle Longitudinal Study.Psychology and Aging, 33(3), 448-460.
Hummert, M. L., Garstka, T. A., Shaner, J. L., & Strahm, S. (1994). Stereotypes of the elderly held by young, middle-aged, and elderly adults.Journal of Gerontology, 49(5), 240-249.
Knight, R. L., Chalabaev, A., McNarry, M. A., Mackintosh, K. A., & Hudson, J. (2021). Do age stereotype‐based interventions affect health-related outcomes in older adults? A systematic review and future directions.British Journal of Health Psychology, 27(2), 338-373.
Kornadt, A. E., Kessler, E.-M., Wurm, S., Bowen, C. E., Gabrian, M., & Klusmann, V. (2020). Views on ageing: A lifespan perspective.European Journal of Ageing, 17(4), 387-401.
Kornadt, A. E., & Rothermund, K. (2012). Internalization of age stereotypes into the self-concept via future self-views: A general model and domain-specific differences.Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 164-172.
Kotter-Grühn, D., & Hess, T. M. (2012). The impact of age stereotypes on self-perceptions of aging across the adult lifespan.The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(5), 563-571.
Kuhn, E., Perrotin, A., Tomadesso, C., André, C., Sherif, S., Bejanin, A., … Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. (2021). Subjective cognitive decline: Opposite links to neurodegeneration across the Alzheimer’s continuum.Brain Communications, 3(3), fcab199. https://doi.org/10.1093/braincomms/fcab199
Lamont, R. A., Swift, H. J., & Abrams, D. (2015). A review and meta-analysis of age-based stereotype threat: Negative stereotypes, not facts, do the damage.Psychology and Aging, 30(1), 180-193.
Levy, B. R. (1996). Improving memory in old age through implicit self-stereotyping.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(6), 1092-1107.
Levy, B. R. (2009). Stereotype embodiment: A psychosocial approach to aging.Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(6), 332-336.
Levy, B. R., Zonderman, A. B., Slade, M. D., & Ferrucci, L. (2009). Age stereotypes held earlier in life predict cardiovascular events in later life.Psychological Science, 20(3), 296-298.
Levy, B. R., Zonderman, A. B., Slade, M. D., & Ferrucci, L. (2012). Memory shaped by age stereotypes over time.The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(4), 432-436.
Löckenhoff, C. E., De Fruyt, F., Terracciano, A., McCrae, R. R., De Bolle, M., Costa, P. T., … Yik, M. (2009). Perceptions of aging across 26 cultures and their culture-level associates.Psychology and Aging, 24(4), 941-954.
Marques, S., Lima, M. L., Abrams, D., & Swift, H. (2014). Will to live in older people’s medical decisions: Immediate and delayed effects of aging stereotypes.Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 44(6), 399-408.
Marquet, M., Chasteen, A. L., Plaks, J. E., & Balasubramaniam, L. (2019). Understanding the mechanisms underlying the effects of negative age stereotypes and perceived age discrimination on older adults’ well-being.Aging & Mental Health, 23(12), 1666-1673.
Mazerolle, M., Régner, I., Rigalleau, F., & Huguet, P. (2015). Stereotype threat alters the subjective experience of memory.Experimental Psychology, 62(6), 395-402.
Meyer, O. L., Leggett, A., Liu, S., & Nguyen, N. H. (2018). Prevalence and correlates of subjective memory complaints in Vietnamese adults.International Psychogeriatrics, 30(7), 1039-1048.
Mitchell, A. J., Beaumont, H., Ferguson, D., Yadegarfar, M., & Stubbs, B. (2014). Risk of dementia and mild cognitive impairment in older people with subjective memory complaints: Meta-analysis.Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 130(6), 439-451.
Molden, J., & Maxfield, M. (2017). The impact of aging stereotypes on dementia worry.European Journal of Ageing, 14(1), 29-37.
Mussweiler, T. (2003). Comparison processes in social judgment: Mechanisms and consequences.Psychological Review, 110(3), 472-489.
Mussweiler, T. (2009). Comparison. In F. Strack & J. Förster (Eds.),Social cognition: The basis of human interaction (pp. 139-156). Psychology Press.
Mussweiler, T., & Bodenhausen, G. V. (2002). I know you are, but what am I? Self-evaluative consequences of judging in-group and out-group members.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(1), 19-32.
Mussweiler, T., Rüter, K., & Epstude, K. (2004). The ups and downs of social comparison: Mechanisms of assimilation and contrast.Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87(6), 832-844.
National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. (2019, February 27).Subjective cognitive decline—A public health issue. https://www.cdc.gov/aging/data/subjective-cognitive-decline-brief.html
Ng, R., Allore, H. G., Trentalange, M., Monin, J. K., & Levy, B. R. (2015). Increasing negativity of age stereotypes across 200 years: Evidence from a database of 400 million words.PLoS ONE, 10(2), Article e0117086.https://doi.org/10.1371/JOURNAL.PONE.0117 086
O’Brien, L. T., & Hummert, M. L. (2006). Memory performance of late middle-aged adults: Contrasting self-stereotyping and stereotype threat accounts of assimilation to age stereotypes.Social Cognition, 24(3), 338-358.
Papies, E. K., & Nicolaije, K. A. H. (2012). Inspiration or deflation? Feeling similar or dissimilar to slim and plus-size models affects self-evaluation of restrained eaters.Body Image, 9(1), 76-85.
Parker, G. J., Ownsworth, T., Haslam, C., & Shum, D. H. K. (2020). Overcoming age-based stereotypes to optimize cognitive performance in older adults: A systematic review of methodology and existing evidence.The Gerontologist, 62(3), e206-e223.
Pearman, A., & Storandt, M. (2005). Self-discipline and self-consciousness predict subjective memory in older adults.The Journals of Gerontology, Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60(3), P153-P157.
Perey, I., & Koenigstorfer, J. (2023). Perceived similarity determines social comparison effects of more and less physically active others.Journal of Health Psychology, 28(2), 162-175.
Petersen, S., Taube, K., Lehmann, K., Van den Bergh, O., & von Leupoldt, A. (2012). Social comparison and anxious mood in pulmonary rehabilitation: The role of cognitive focus.British Journal of Health Psychology, 17(3), 463-476.
Pinquart, M. (2002). Good news about the effects of bad old-age stereotypes.Experimental Aging Research, 28(3), 317-336.
Pinquart, M., & Wahl, H.-W. (2021). Subjective age from childhood to advanced old age: A meta-analysis.Psychology and Aging, 36(3), 394-406.
Rabin, L. A., Smart, C. M., Crane, P. K., Amariglio, R. E., Berman, L. M., Boada, M. … Sikkes, S. A. M. (2015). Subjective cognitive decline in older adults: An overview of self-report measures used across 19 international research studies.Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 48(s1), S63-S86.
Rheu, M., Peng, W., & Haung, K.-T. (2023). Leveraging upward social comparison in social media to promote healthy parenting.Health Communication, 38(2), 205-215.
Söllner, M., Dürnberger, M., Keller, J., & Florack, A. (2022). The impact of age stereotypes on well-being: Strategies of selection, optimization, and compensation as mediator and regulatory focus as moderator: Findings from a cross-sectional and a longitudinal study.Journal of Happiness Studies, 23(2), 635-665.
Spielberger, C. D., Gorsuch, R. L., & Lushene, R. E. (1983).Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: STAI. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Strickland-Hughes, C. M., & West, R. L. (2021). The impact of naturalistic age stereotype activation.Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 685448. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.685448
Sunderland, A., Harris, J. E., & Gleave, J. (1984). Memory failures in everyday life following severe head injury.Journal of Clinical Neuropsychology, 6(2), 127-142.
Tormala, Z. L., & Clarkson, J. J. (2007). Assimilation and contrast in persuasion: The effects of source credibility in multiple message situations.Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33(4), 559-571.
Vailati Riboni, F., & Pagnini, F. (2021). Age-based stereotype threat: A scoping review of stereotype priming techniques and their effects on the aging process.Aging & Mental Health, 26(7), 1444-1450.
Vestergren, P., & Nilsson, L.-G. (2011). Perceived causes of everyday memory problems in a population-based sample aged 39-99.Applied Cognitive Psychology, 25(4), 641-646.
Violeau, L., Valery, K.-M., Fournier, T., & Prouteau, A. (2020). How continuum beliefs can reduce stigma of schizophrenia: The role of perceived similarities.Schizophrenia Research, 220, 46-53.
Weiss, D., & Kornadt, A. E. (2018). Age-stereotype internalization and dissociation: Contradictory processes or two sides of the same coin?Current Directions in Psychological Science, 27(6), 477-483.
Weiss, D., & Lang, F. R. (2012). “They” are old but “I” feel younger: Age-group dissociation as a self-protective strategy in old age.Psychology and Aging, 27(1), 153-163.
Weissberger, G. H., Bodner, E., Palgi, Y., Kavé, G., Shmotkin, D., & Shrira, A. (2022). The association between views of aging and subjective cognitive complaints in older adults: Findings from two samples.Research on Aging, 44(7-8), 531-544.
Wilcox, K., Roggeveen, A. L., & Grewal, D. (2011). Shall I tell you now or later? Assimilation and contrast in the evaluation of experiential products.Journal of Consumer Research, 38(4), 763-773.
Wu, Y.-Y., Hsu, W.-C., Huang, Y.-H., Ho, W.-M., & Chen, Y.-C. (2019). Memory complaint is a surrogate for memory decline in the middle-aged: A register-based study.Journal of Clinical Medicine, 8(11), Article 1900. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm 8111900
杜剑文. (2002). 上海市高一学生焦虑及影响因素的研究(硕士学位论文). 华东师范大学, 上海.
葛枭语. (2021). 孝的多维心理结构:取向之异与古今之变. 心理学报, 53(3), 306-321.
黄婷婷. (2017). 老化刻板印象对老年人记忆的影响——对比-同化机制(硕士学位论文). 北京师范大学.
姜兆萍, 周宗奎. (2012). 老年歧视的特点、机制与干预. 心理科学进展, 20(10), 1642-1650.
金涛. (2010). 病人健康问卷抑郁量表(PHQ-9)在社区老年人群中的应用(硕士学位论文). 浙江大学, 杭州.
李思雨. (2020). 主观年龄对老年人日常事件策略选择的影响(硕士学位论文). 北京师范大学.
姚若松, 梁乐瑶. (2010). 大五人格量表简化版(NEO-FFI)在大学生人群的应用分析. 中国临床心理学杂志, 18(04), 457-459.
周晓琴, 陆健, 莫晶, 吴越, 杨宏宇, 刘晓伟, … 程灶火. (2019). 老年人主观记忆抱怨与客观认知损害的关联性. 中国临床心理学杂志, 27(3), 520-523.
[1] LIU Xiaoshi, CAO Zhongping, YU Junjie, MO Bibo, WU Yun. Relations between Education and Health in Rural Middle-aged and Elderly Adults: Examining the Roles of Age and Sense of Security [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(5): 729-736.
[2] ZHANG Huan, XIE Zhongguang, WANG Yali, QIN Xiquan, LIU Tuo. The Development of Group Creativity and Its Relationship with Individual Creativity in Middle-aged Children [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2024, 40(4): 468-478.
[3] ZHANG Xiang-kui, LIU Yang, TIAN Lu-mei. Impact of Cognitive Appraisal,Mental Control between the Mental Feeling and Mental Health of Middle-aged People [J]. Psychological Development and Education, 2006, 22(4): 91-96.
Viewed
Full text


Abstract

Cited
  Shared   
  Discussed   
No Suggested Reading articles found!
Copyright 2018 © Editorial office of Psychological Development and Education
Supported by Beijing Magtech Co.Ltd